Boundless Writing

Boundless Writing

Introduction to College-Level Writing

Introduction to College-Level Writing

Basic Principles of Academic Writing

Developing Your Voice as a Writer

Getting Help Meeting College Writing Expectations

Discussing Writing in Class

Attributions

Writing an Effective Paper

Overview of the Process of Writing a Paper

Introduction to the Writing Process

Introduction to the Thesis Statement

Attributions

Steps of Writing a Paper

Step 1: Prewriting and Choosing a Topic

Step 2: Researching

Step 3: Outlining

Step 4: Drafting

Step 5: Revising

Step 6: Editing and Proofreading

Step 7: Completing a Final Review

Attributions

Prewriting Techniques

Brainstorming

Freewriting

Clustering and Concept Mapping

Attributions

Building Your Paper

Modes of Persuasion: Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

Approaches to Your Introductory Paragraph

Approaches to Your Body Paragraphs

Approaches to Your Concluding Paragraph

Attributions

Quoting and Paraphrasing

The Basics of Quotations

Introducing and Formatting Quotations

Paraphrasing

Attributions

Incorporating Objections and Opposing Views

The Importance of Addressing Opposing Views

Techniques for Acknowledging Opposing Views

Refuting Your Opposition

Attributions

The Research Process

Understanding the Academic Context of Your Topic

Understanding the Academic Context of Your Topic

Attributions

Organizing Your Research Plan

Organizing Your Research Plan

Attributions

Finding Your Sources

The Importance of Reliability

Scholarly Sources

Choosing Search Terms for Sources

Attributions

Understanding Your Sources

Understanding Your Sources

Attributions

Using Your Sources

Taking Useful Notes on Your Sources

Maintaining an Annotated Bibliography

Writing While You Research

Incorporating Your Sources Into Your Paper

Attributions

Citing Your Sources

The Importance of Citing Your Sources

Attributions

Overview of English Grammar: Parts of Speech

Introduction to English Grammar and Mechanics

Components of a Sentence

Structure of a Sentence

Introduction to Inflection

Attributions

Nouns

Nouns as Subjects and Objects

Attributions

Pronouns

Introduction to Pronouns

Pronouns as Subjects and Objects

Attributions

Verbs

Introduction to Verbs: Tense, Aspect, and Mood

Verb Tense: Past, Present, and Future

Verbal Aspect: Simple, Progressive, Perfect, and Perfect Progressive

Verb Mood: Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative

Attributions

Modifiers: Adjectives and Adverbs

Introduction to Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives

Adverbs

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

Attributions

Conjunctions

Conjunctions: Coordination, Correlation, Conjunction, and Subordination

Attributions

Agreement and Parallelism

Subject-Verb Agreement

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

Structural Parallelism Within a Sentence

Attributions

Overview of English Grammar: Punctuation and Mechanics

Commas

Introduction to Commas

Common Comma Mistakes

Attributions

Colons and Semicolons

Colons

Semicolons

Attributions

Apostrophes and Quotation Marks

Apostrophes

Quotation Marks

Attributions

Hyphens and Dashes

Hyphens

Em Dashes and En Dashes

Attributions

Other Punctuation

Parentheses

Ending Punctuation

Attributions

General Mechanics

Common Spelling Errors

Capital Letters

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Numbers

Italics

Attributions

Writing Effective Sentences

The Importance of Wording

The Importance of Wording

Attributions

Word Choice

Precision

Using the Dictionary and Thesaurus Effectively

Attributions

Tone

Appropriate Language

Attributions

Diction

Gender-Neutral Language

Active Voice vs. Passive Voice

Concision

Attributions

Writing Effective Paragraphs

Organizing Your Ideas

Topic Sentences

Attributions

Connecting Your Ideas

Transitions, Signal Phrases, and Pointing Words

Attributions

Keeping Your Writing Engaging

Varying Your Sentence Structure and Vocabulary

Attributions

Rhetorical Modes

Introduction to Rhetorical Modes

Introduction to Rhetorical Modes

Attributions

Types of Rhetorical Modes

Argumentation and Persuasion

Classification

Cause and Effect

Comparison and Contrast

Definition

Description

Illustration and Exemplification

Narration

Process Analysis

Attributions

Writing Across Disciplines

Introduction to Writing Across Disciplines

Writing in Different Academic Disciplines

Attributions

Writing in the Humanities

Introduction to Writing in the Humanities

Attributions

Writing in the Natural and Social Sciences: The Research Paper and the IMRAD Model

Principles of Writing in the Sciences

Overview of the IMRAD Model

Abstract

Introduction and Thesis

Methods

Results

Discussion and Conclusion

Attributions

Writing in Business

Introduction to Writing in Business

Attributions

Writing a Paper in MLA Style (Humanities)

Introduction to MLA Style

When to Use MLA Style

Attributions

MLA: Quotations and Citations

MLA: Block Quotations

MLA: In-Text Citations and Parentheticals

MLA: The Works Cited Section

Attributions

Writing a Paper in APA Style (Social Sciences)

Introduction to APA Style

When to Use APA Style

Overall Structure and Formatting of an APA Paper

Attributions

APA: Structure and Formatting of Specific Elements

APA: Title Page and Running Head

APA: Abstract

APA: Headings

APA: Series and Lists

APA: Block Quotations

Attributions

APA: Empirical Research Papers

APA: Reporting Statistics

APA: Tables and Figures

Attributions

APA: Citations and References

APA: The References Section

APA: How to Reference Different Types of Sources

APA: In-Text Citations and Parentheticals

Attributions

Writing a Paper in Chicago/Turabian Style (History)

Introduction to Chicago/Turabian Style

When to Use Chicago/Turabian Style

Overall Structure and Formatting of a Chicago/Turabian Paper

Attributions

Chicago/Turabian: Structure and Formatting of Specific Elements

Chicago/Turabian: Title Page

Chicago/Turabian: Headings

Chicago/Turabian: Block Quotations

Chicago/Turabian: Tables and Figures

Attributions

Chicago/Turabian: Citations and References – Notes and Bibliography (NB) System

Chicago/Turabian (NB): The Bibliography Section

Chicago/Turabian (NB): How to Reference Different Types of Sources

Chicago/Turabian (NB): Footnotes and Endnotes

How to Reference Different Types of Sources in Footnotes

Attributions

Chicago/Turabian: Citations and References – Author–Date (AD) System

Chicago/Turabian (Author–Date): The References Section

Chicago/Turabian (Author–Date): How to Reference Different Types of Sources

Chicago/Turabian (Author–Date): In-Text References and Parentheticals

Attributions

1: Introduction to College-Level Writing

1.1: Introduction to College-Level Writing

1.1.1: Basic Principles of Academic Writing

Academic writing presents thoroughly investigated ideas to an informed audience.

Learning Objective

Contrast academic and popular writing

Key Points

Academic writing makes a claim or an argument, and uses a combination of evidence (details and facts) and clear explanations of logical reasoning to support that claim in order to persuade the reader.

Good academic writing is concise; rather than using flowery language and overly complex sentence structures, which can distract from an argument, writers should use the simplest language possible to let their ideas shine through.

Academic writing usually uses objective language, which allows writers to convince the reader that their argument is true, rather than just subjective opinions.

A good academic writer is able to see both sides of the argument, or claim, and counter it with supporting evidence. 

Key Terms

genre

A category or type of writing, usually in reference to different academic disciplines.

claim

An assertion, used as the basis for an academic piece of writing, that must be proven with evidence. 

counter-arguments

Ideas and evidence which refute or oppose the original claim.

analysis

A critical examination by the writer which draws connections (or notes disconnections) between points of evidence. 

academic writing

Writing that is published or presented to a specialized audience in order to inform, persuade, demonstrate, explore, or achieve some other specific purpose. 

"Academic writing" is a broad term that covers a wide variety of genres across disciplines. While its features will vary, academic (or scholarly) writing in general tries to maintain a professional tone while defending  a specific position or idea.

There are many different approaches to academic research, since each discipline has its own conventions that dictate what kinds of texts and evidence are permissible. Scholarly writing typically takes an objective tone, even though it argues in favor of a specific position or stance. Academic writing can reach a broader audience through more informal venues, such as journalism and public speaking.

Overarching Principles of Academic Writing

Academic writing comes in many forms and can cover a wide range of subject matter; however, successful writing will demonstrate certain conventions, no matter what is being written about. 

The Thesis Statement: Making and Supporting a Claim

Strong academic writing takes a stance on the topic it is covering—it tries to convince the reader of a certain perspective or claim. This claim is known as the "thesis statement." The majority of an academic paper will be spent using facts and details to "prove" to the reader that the claim is true. How this is done depends on the discipline: in the sciences, a research paper will present an original experiment and data to support the claim; in a literature class, an essay will cite quotations from a text that weave into the larger argument. Regardless of discipline, the overarching goal of most academic writing is to persuade the reader to agree with the claim.

Concision

Concision is the art of using the fewest words possible to convey an idea. Some students mistakenly think that longer words and more complicated sentence structures make their writing "better" or more sophisticated. In reality, the longer and more complicated a sentence gets, the harder it is for a reader to interpret that sentence and stay engaged with your argument. For example, if you find yourself using a phrase like "due to the fact that," you can simplify your wording and make your sentence more powerful by saying "because" instead. Similarly, say "now" or "currently" rather than "at this point in time." Unnecessarily complicated wording distracts your reader from your argument; simpler sentence structures let your ideas shine through.

Objectivity

Most academic writing uses objective language. That is, rather than presenting the argument as the writer's opinion ("I believe that ...", "I think this means ..."), it tries to convince the reader that the argument is necessarily true based on the supporting facts: "this evidence reveals that ..."

Breaking the Rules

There are countless examples of respected scholarly pieces that bend these principles—for instance, the "reader response" school of literary criticism abandons the objective stance altogether. However, you have to know the rules before you can break them successfully. 

Think of a chef putting chili powder in hot chocolate, a delicious but unexpected bending of a rule: typically, desserts are not spicy. In order to successfully break that rule, the chef first had to understand all the flavors at work in both ingredients, and make the choice knowing that it would improve the recipe. It's only a good idea to break these rules and principles if there is a specific, good reason to do so. Therefore, if you plan to dispense with one of the conventions of academic writing, it is a good idea to make sure your instructor approves of your stylistic choice.

Building Academic Writing Skills

Academic work is an excellent way to develop strong research and writing skills. Try to use your undergraduate assignments to build your reading comprehension, critical and creative thinking, research and analytical skills. Having a specific, "real" audience will help you engage more directly with the reader and adapt to the conventions of writing in any given genre. 

The original Dallas Public Library

Across many academic disciplines, research is often required for writing assignments.

1.1.2: Developing Your Voice as a Writer

Develop and showcase your unique voice while adhering to the rules of writing content and style.

Learning Objective

Differentiate between voice and style 

Key Points

While academic writing stresses formal conventions, opportunities exist to experiment with a wide range of styles and voices.

A more casual writing style might include contractions, humor, exclamations, and/or familiar vocabulary. Others writings may include clause-heavy sentences, esoteric terminology, and formal language. Still others favor analogies, idioms, metaphors, and colorful imagery.

"Authorial voice" is a characteristic of a writer's distinctive style. It is an important element of academic writing, fiction, and nonfiction. 

Voice is developed over time and through experience.

Key Terms

format

The arrangement of images, titles, headers, content, and other formal elements of writing within a work.

style

An author's unique method of putting together words, phrases, sentences, analogies, metaphors, idioms, and expressions.

voice

The distinct personality that comes through in a writer's work which may convey the author's attitude and character.  It may represent the characteristic speech and thought patterns of the writer.  

You've probably heard that one quality found in good writing is voice. "Voice" refers to elements of the author's tone, phrasing, and style that are recognizably unique to her or him. A distinctive, persuasive voice will successfully engage your audience — without it, your writing risks losing your reader despite your top notch research or how well you adhered to sound writing practices. Yes, academic writing has rules about format, style, and objectivity that you must follow, but these will not rescue boring, impersonal prose. Whatever you choose to write about, be certain to develop an authorial voice!

Having a "unique voice" does not translate into having a radically different style from others. In academic writing, voice boils down to seemingly insignificant small habits and personal preferences. But they matter! If each student in your class was told to explain a complex concept, not one would do it in the same way. Each would use different language and syntax to say the same basic thing.  Over time, each student would continue to make similar choices in language and syntax, and readers would eventually associate those choices with particular writers — each student would have developed an authorial voice.

Keep in mind that voice is not something you can automatically create. It may be tempting to use unusual syntax or fancy vocabulary hoping to make your writing stand out.  Be forewarned - that would not be your genuine style. There is no quick way to create a recognizable voice, as it can only be developed over time. The key to developing your voice is to keep writing and to think about what specific types of writing excite you. Pay attention to how you say things — what words you use, what sorts of phrases and sentence structures you favor, even what kind of punctuation appears in your work frequently. These are the choices that will eventually become markers of your authorial voice.

Individual style at the Ohio Renaissance Festival

Much like the people shown above dressed in different costumes, every writer has a distinct style. You should maintain the distinctive elements of your voice and style in the academic context. Even when you're outside your comfortable, everyday environment, you can still find ways to express your unique style.

1.1.3: Getting Help Meeting College Writing Expectations

Your university can provide several resources to help you through the process of planning and drafting an academic paper. 

Learning Objective

Give examples of places to find campus resources for writing

Key Points

The conventions of academic writing can be confusing at first, but there is no need to struggle alone.

Colleges provide students with a variety of resources and advisers to help students adjust to writing at the collegiate level. Take advantage of whatever resources your college offers.

Taking advantage of these resources has the added benefit of pushing you to begin the process early so you will have enough time to write and revise several drafts.

Some colleges publish outstanding student work, which can provide valuable examples for you as you get used to academic writing.

Key Terms

workshop

A gathering of students who share brainstorming, research, drafting, revision, and editing tips by reading and responding to each other's papers. 

writing center

A space (often both physical and online) that provides students with free assistance on papers, projects, reports, multimodal documents, web pages, etc. from instructor and peer consultants.

drafting

The process of beginning to write and revise a paper, with the understanding that no one else will see it.

The typical student enters college with a wealth of experience writing five-paragraph essays, book reports, and lab reports. Even the best students, however, need to make big adjustments to learn the conventions of academic writing. College-level writing obeys different rules, and learning them will help you hone your writing skills. Think of it as ascending another step up the writing ladder.

Many students feel intimidated asking for help with academic writing; after all, it's something you've been doing your entire life in school. However, there's no need to feel like it's a sign of your lack of ability; on the contrary, many of the strongest student writers regularly get help and support with their writing (that's why they're so strong). College instructors are very familiar with the ups and downs of writing, and most universities have support systems in place to help students learn how to write for an academic audience. The following sections discuss common on-campus writing services, what to expect from them, and how they can help you.

Kings College, Cambridge

College writing can seem daunting at first, but there are methods to help you master it.

Writing Mentors

Learning to write for an academic audience is challenging, but universities offer various resources to guide students through the process. Most instructors will be happy to meet with you during office hours to discuss guidelines for writing about their particular discipline. If you have any doubts about research methods, paper structure, writing style, etc., address these uncertainties with the instructor before you hand in your paper, rather than waiting to see the critiques they write in the margins afterward. You are not bothering your instructor by showing up for office hours; they'll be glad to see you.

Writing Centers

Most colleges have writing centers that are designed to help students meet college-level expectations. These centers usually offer one-on-one advisory meetings or group sessions that cover topics ranging from conducting research to conquering procrastination. Many writing centers employ student mentors from a wide range of disciplines, so try to work with one who deeply understands the field you're writing in. 

Learning by Example

Many students like to learn by example, and find it very helpful to read other students' academic writing. Some universities publish outstanding student essays. Some professors keep copies of student papers, and they may be willing to show you examples of writing that meets their expectations. Genuine student papers are universally better models to follow than any of the "sample essays" on the Internet. 

Student-Led Workshops

Some courses encourage students to share their research and writing with each other, and even offer workshops where students can present their own writing and offer constructive comments to their classmates. Independent paper-writing workshops provide a space for peers with varying interests, work styles, and areas of expertise to brainstorm. If you want to improve your writing, organizing a workshop session with your classmates is a great strategy. You can also ask your writing center to help you organize a workshop for a specific class or subject. In high school, students submit their work in multiple stages, from the thesis statement to the outline to a draft of the paper; finally, after receiving feedback on each preliminary piece, they submit a completed project. This format teaches students how to divide writing assignments into smaller tasks and schedule these tasks over an extended period of time, instead of scrambling through the entire process right before the deadline. Some college courses build this kind of writing schedule into major assignments. Even if your course does not, you can master the skill of breaking large assignments down into smaller projects instead of leaving an unmanageable amount of work until the last minute. Academic writing can, at times, feel overwhelming. You can waste a great deal of time staring at a blank screen or a troublesome paragraph, when it would be more productive to move on to drafting other parts of your paper. When you return to the problem section a few hours later (or, even better, the next day), the solution may be obvious. 

Writing in drafts makes academic work more manageable. Drafting gets your ideas onto paper, which gives you more to work with than the perfectionist's daunting blank screen. You can always return later to fix the problems that bother you.

Scheduling the Stages of Your Writing Process

Time management, not talent, has been the secret to a lot of great writing through the ages. Not even a "great" writer can produce a masterpiece the night before it's due. Breaking a large writing task into smaller pieces will not only save your sanity, but will also result in a more thoughtful, polished final draft.

Sample schedule: 

Monday: Visit your instructor's office hours to discuss ideas, sources, and structure for the essay. 

Tuesday: Do research at the library from 5:00 to 9:00, taking detailed notes and planning how each piece of research will fit into your paper.

Wednesday: Do research at the library from 2:00 to 6:00, take detailed notes, and give yourself permission to write an imperfect draft.

Thursday: Begin a first draft of the essay.

Friday: Continue expanding/editing the first draft.

Saturday: Look again at the draft and continue to make changes/additions/deletions. 

Sunday: Write a final draft. Print out your paper for proofreading (it's worth it).

Monday: Don't look at the essay. However, if there are any remaining questions, go to your instructor's office hours. 

Tuesday: Revise, edit and proofread the essay one more time. Relax while everyone else in your class is panicking.

Wednesday morning: Give the essay a final read and proofread, and print it out.

Wednesday afternoon: Turn in your essay. 

Emailing Your Instructor 

Example Email

Subject: Expository Writing 101: Office hours on Tuesday               

Dear/Hello Professor [Last name], 

I have a few questions about the next essay assignment for Expository Writing 101. Would it be convenient to discuss them during your office hours on Tuesday? Let me know if there is a specific time when I should stop by. Thank you for your help with these assignments. 

Many thanks, 

[First name] [Last name]

Expository Writing 101; T, Th, 10:00

Tips for Emailing Your Instructor

Be polite: Address your professor formally, using the title "Professor" with their last name. Depending on how formal your professor seems, use the salutation "Dear," or a more informal "Hello" or "Hi." Don't drop the salutation altogether, though.

Be concise. Instructors are busy people, and although they are typically more than happy to help you, do them the favor of getting to your point quickly. Sign off with your first and last name, the course number, and the class time. This will make it easy for your professor to identify you.

Do not ever ask, "When will you return our papers?" If you MUST ask, make it specific and realistic (e.g., "Will we get our papers back by the end of next week?").

1.1.4: Discussing Writing in Class

Class discussion is an essential part of the feedback and revision process, since it provides a space for students to communicate differing views.

Learning Objective

Identify techniques for discussing writing in class effectively

Key Points

The goal of classroom discussion is not only to promote comprehension of a shared text, but also to encourage students to listen to, understand, and exchange their assessments of a text.

As a learning method, classroom discussions are generally more fun and interactive than simply listening to a teacher lecture or taking a written test.

Class discussions encourage learning through active participation, comprehension, and listening. They help students to think, solve problems, listen to others, and analyze the ideas of other students, all while backing up their own thoughts with evidence from past class teachings. 

Incorporating perspectives and ideas from class discussion into your paper allows you to strengthen connections between course concepts and demonstrate your engagement in what others have to say.

In-class workshops can provide you with valuable feedback from your peers about how to improve your paper, and also teach you to be a more careful and critical reader of your own and others' work. 

Key Term

workshop

A discussion in which people can give one another feedback on each other's writing.

Classroom Discussions

Classroom discussion isn't simply a way of gaining points; it's an essential part of learning, comprehending, and sharing knowledge. Class discussion is often used together with other forms of assessment to calculate your grade, even if there are no points expressly awarded. Together with lectures and individual study, discussing course readings and materials with your peers and the instructor can open up new insights that are impossible to achieve on your own. In order to get the most out of class discussion, the instructor and all students should engage in an actual conversation, not simply question-and-answer. 

Classroom discussion

This class discussion is engaging.

As a learning method, classroom discussions are generally more fun and interactive than simply listening to a teacher lecture or doing written work. When presenting a question to a class of students, teachers open up the classroom discussion to different ideas, opinions, and questions, and can mediate while students come up with their own conclusions. Class discussions encourage learning through active participation, comprehension, and listening. They help students to think, solve problems, listen to others, and analyze the ideas of other students, all while backing up their own thoughts with evidence from past class teachings. Discussions also encourage the practice of informal oral communication, which is a much-needed skill later in life.

When participating in a class discussion, the following strategies are effective:

Try to stay on topic. Outside references are often good for context, but remember that the focus here is on learning. 

Try to use relevant vocabulary from the lesson to confirm your understanding of new concepts and demonstrate your authority. 

Try to build upon the ideas of others; listen and respond as much as you speak. 

Always be respectful to others, especially if someone in the discussion offers an opinion that differs from your own.

Try to provide constructive criticism to others regarding their thoughts, comments, or work: "I think you're on the right track here, but this point doesn't seem to be supported with direct evidence."

Don't get too worked up if you disagree with the instructor or another student. A strong emotional response is good, since it indicates you're engaged with the topic, but always keep a calm demeanor to show your classmates your ability to work in this setting without getting angry or flustered.

Writing Workshops

A workshop is a special kind of classroom discussion in which students discuss each other's work. The advice given above on class discussions also applies when you and your peers are given time in class (or in a group study session, in the writing center, etc.) to workshop drafts of each other's papers. A writing workshop is an excellent way to get suggestions from peers that help you improve your paper, since fellow students may be able to offer a perspective your instructor cannot. Constructive, focused workshop critiquing also allows you to become a more critical reader and writer. Here are some questions that might be helpful for class discussions about student writing: 

What is the author saying in this text? 

Use three words to describe the tone and style the author uses in his/her argument. Is this the best tone and style to achieve the author's purpose?

Where does the author present rhetoric that is based on emotion? On facts? Which of these seem to be most prevalent in the argument? 

Why does the author think this argument matters? Have they convinced you that it matters? How might the "so what" factor be raised? 

What special terminology does (or should) the author use? 

How does this text relate to other things that have been read in this class?

Give the author two positive comments, and three suggestions for improvement in the next draft. 

Attributions

Basic Principles of Academic Writing

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Concision." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concision. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Academic writing." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_writing. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"The Nostalgic Glass | Dallas Library." http://nostalgicglass.org/background.php?pn=19. The Nostalgic Glass CC BY-SA.

Developing Your Voice as a Writer

"Style (visual arts)." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Style_(visual_arts). Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"voice." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/voice. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Two Fops | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/frted/4003842153/. Flickr CC BY-SA.

Getting Help Meeting College Writing Expectations

"The Cain Project in Engineering and Professional Communication, Manual for Writing Mentors. September 17, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m15909/latest/. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.

"Writing center." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing%20center. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"schedule." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/schedule. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Academic writing." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_writing. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Kings College | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/riklowe/552649138/. Flickr CC BY.

Discussing Writing in Class

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Study Skills." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Study_Skills%23Having_Discussions. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"comprehension." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comprehension. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"People in workshop class public domain image picture." http://www.public-domain-image.com/people-public-domain-images-pictures/crowd-public-domain-images-pictures/people-in-workshop-class.jpg.html. Public Domain Images CC BY.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30168/30168-h/30168-h.htm. Public domain.

2: Writing an Effective Paper

2.1: Overview of the Process of Writing a Paper

2.1.1: Introduction to the Writing Process

Learning to write is like following a recipe; there is room for creativity, but you need to know the basics.

Learning Objective

Outline the steps of the writing and revision process

Key Points

Each step of the writing process helps to build a strong paper.

The steps of the writing process are prewriting/choosing a topic, researching, outlining, drafting, revising, editing/proofreading, and the final review.

As you become familiar with the "recipe" of writing and its components, you will feel increasingly comfortable and creative in the writing process.

Key Terms

expository writing

Derived from the word "expose," expository writing seeks to expose, explain, describe, define, or inform.

recursive

Pertaining to a procedure that can be used repeatedly. In composition, a writer may return to the tasks of a previous stage once informed by the activities of a current stage.

writing process

A series of overlapping steps writers use in composing. The process may differ based on the purpose and form of the composition.

The Writing Process

In high school, students usually submit their work in multiple stages—from the thesis statement to the outline to a draft of the paper, and finally, after receiving feedback on each preliminary piece, a completed project. This format teaches students how to divide writing assignments into smaller tasks and schedule these tasks over an extended period of time. In college, it is your responsibility to break large assignments down into smaller projects so you do not have an unmanageable amount of work at the last minute.

We should first address the common resistance to form. Beginning writers often protest that imposing formal rules on writing contradicts the notion of writing as a creative art. Sometimes, however, working within a form actually enhances creativity. Approaching the process of writing the same way each time builds facility and ease into your writing. You become familiar with the progression of the project, knowing that each stage has a specific purpose in the creation of a strong final product.  

A Recipe for Good Writing

The seasoned baker no longer pulls out the cookbook every time she wants to bake a cake. In fact, she might charge into the pantry looking for new and interesting ingredients, like chili powder for the chocolate icing. But there was a time when she followed the recipe step by step and by doing so learned exactly what happens when you leave out one ingredient or overdo another. Think of the following chapters as your cookbook for writing a successful paper and look forward to the day when you can focus more on being creative with spices than on learning the recipe.

Here, then, are the steps of the writing process: our "recipe" for good expository writing. As you read them, consider what might be entailed in each step. Imagine what you'll be doing and why it could be useful in creating a successful final paper.

Step 1: Prewriting and Choosing a Topic

Step 2: Researching

Step 3: Outlining

Step 4: Drafting

Step 5: Revising

Step 6: Editing and Proofreading

Step 7: Completing a Final Review

Can you figure out why you might need each step? Start thinking of some questions to ask as you move forward. Your question might be "Why in the world would I want to spend precious time outlining?" You might ask, "Why does there need to be a step for revising and then a separate step for editing and proofreading?" You might wonder how to approach the drafting phase without feeling overwhelmed, or you might be curious about the brainstorming methods we recommend.

It's important to recognize that writing is a recursive process. Just as you taste when you cook, then go back and add more of something to enhance the dish's flavor, while you are writing you're regularly going back to earlier stages or jumping forward in the process as needed. Though there are reasons for using the particular steps above, they are part of a flexible process that's there to serve you, the writer.

Techniques in Depth

Once we've explored each of these steps, we'll delve deeper into some of the more nuanced techniques involved in creating a strong argument.  

Section 3 examines the process of developing a thesis from the brainstorming stage through to the final statement. Everything in a paper is organized around the thesis statement. How do you know when you have one that is strong enough to hold a paper together?

Section 4 guides you through building a narrative that makes sense for your topic and purpose. The narrative is where the writer creates a kind of magic with the power of persuasion. What are the practical tools behind this mysterious process?

Section 5 looks at the supportive use of quotations and paraphrasing, answering questions about formatting, appropriate use of quotes, and other issues. Is there skill behind the choice of when to use a quote and when to paraphrase, or is it a random selection?

Section 6 addresses the strategy of incorporating into your paper possible objections to your argument. But is it wise to make your opponents' argument for them, and if so, should you weaken their arguments in order to strengthen your own?

Try looking at each stage of the writing process as a necessary ingredient for a cake, and you'll begin to respect each step for what it offers your final product. No one would want to eat flour by itself, but leaving it out of the mixing process would spell disaster for dessert (unless you are making flourless cake). Similarly, while you may find the idea of researching or proofreading distasteful in isolation, you'll learn to appreciate and even enjoy each step of the process for what it contributes to the whole.

2.1.2: Introduction to the Thesis Statement

A strong thesis statement is specific, focused, and holds tension between ideas.

Learning Objective

Distinguish between a defensible thesis statement and a fact

Key Points

One of the key elements of a good thesis statement is tension between two ideas. 

The focus of your thesis should be narrow enough for you to be able to cover the topic thoroughly.

Your thesis should be specific, in order to grab the reader's attention.

Once you have a thesis statement, you'll want to gather evidence both for and against the statement.

Creating a thesis and researching go together. One process informs the other, and you will often need to go back and forth several times to create a solid thesis that can be backed by research.

Key Terms

thesis

A claim that a writer must use evidence to defend.

defensible

Capable of being defended or justified.

Imagine you're having dinner with a few friends. Over dessert and coffee, one friend says, "Professor Ellis is my favorite." His statement might elicit a few nods and a comment or two. Another friend takes it up a notch: "I think Dr. Ellis is the best professor at the school." With this statement, your friend has taken a stand, which can inspire some interest and debate. In response, another friend says, "You guys seem to think that being a good professor is all about how available and nice he or she is to the students, but I think it has a lot more to do with the professor's commitment to scholarship. In fact, I think that while Dr. Ellis might be the most popular professor, Dr. Cassidy is, objectively speaking, actually the best." Is this last statement a little more provocative? Might your guests pour a second cup of coffee and stay a little longer? Why?

Making a Claim

Strong academic writing takes a definitive stance on the topic it is covering. Rather than simply reporting details, academic writing uses details to try to prove a point. This point is often called your "thesis statement," a sentence that expresses your point of view on the topic, which you will support with evidence and research. The key element of a thesis statement is that it is not a fact: it is a claim, something that you have to use evidence to prove. Your thesis is the backbone of your paper, and every fact and idea you add to your paper will support it.

At the dinner party, your friend will give reason after reason why crotchety Dr. Cassidy is actually the superior professor, supporting each reason, we hope, with facts he can back up. By the end of the evening, you may go home with a new respect for Dr. Cassidy's body of scientific research, his ability to make students strive much harder than they do in Dr. Ellis's classes, and his consistent grading policies. If so, your friend will have changed your mind. And it all began with his provocative statement: his thesis.

Elements of a Strong Thesis Statement

Focus

You're going to need to make your case within the scope of one paper, so the focus should be narrow enough for you to be able to cover the topic thoroughly. If you're writing a three-page history paper about the Vietnam War, don't set out to prove an enormous claim about the entire conflict. Pick a sub-sub-topic you are interested in, like guerrilla warfare in tropical climates or the use of military helicopters in rescue missions, and focus your thesis statement on what you can prove about that smaller chunk.

Specificity

You want the reader to be drawn in immediately to the heart of the argument. That means naming names — for example, not "One theme in Hamlet, is vengeance ... ," but "In Hamlet, Fortinbras, Laertes, and Hamlet all seek to avenge their fathers ..."  

The "So What?" Factor

Good writing makes readers care about the topic. When you set out to write and prove your thesis statement, don't simply have the goal of saying, "This is my claim and here's evidence to support it." You'll want your writing to boil down to, "This is my claim, here's why it matters, and here's evidence to support it." 

Crafting Your Thesis

There is more than one way to write a thesis statement for an academic paper. The most important element is that you are making an original claim and then using facts and evidence to support it. However, there are many ways to express your claim. All of these ways engage with the currently existing body of academic writing, but add something new: your ideas, framed as a claim based on evidence.

Tension

One technique for writing a thesis statement is arguing against an existing view. Think of the construction as, "While ____, actually ____." Your guiding thread through the paper will be to convince those who think the first thing that the second thing is actually true.  

Here are two examples of thesis statements with embedded tension:

While organizations like the American Nazi Party and the Ku Klux Klan may pose a real danger to individuals and the fabric of an integrated society, the tenets of democracy demand that their right to free speech be protected by the American Civil Liberties Union.

While the American Civil Liberties Union has a responsibility to protect free speech, this responsibility is based on preserving democracy and should therefore not be extended to hate groups like the American Nazi Party and the Ku Klux Klan, groups which have as their aim the segregation and division of society.

Whichever side of the issue is taken, you can see that there is inherent tension because of the "While ___, actually ___" construction.

Refining

Another way to introduce a defensible thesis statement is to refine an already existing idea: take a generally accepted conclusion and stretch it further. There are as many opinions as there are people in the world, and it can be useful to use someone else's idea as a foundation for your own. However, remember that good theses are based on original opinions. Avoid parroting someone else's; rather, reference and build upon it.

Analyzing

Thesis statements can be used to provide your own original analysis of something, whether it is a historical event, a piece of literature, or a scientific phenomenon. A thesis statement can be a hypothesis, which you set out to prove through evidence. It can be a connection that nobody has ever thought of before. The key element here is that you are looking at already existing facts and opinions, and then putting them together to prove your idea.

Addressing Counter-Arguments

Once you have a thesis statement, you'll want to gather evidence both for and against the statement. You might even want to create, as was done above, a thesis statement that is the opposite of yours and look for research proving both of them. (This is a debating technique that allows the debater to skillfully parry any counter-argument.) Including counter-arguments in your paper is a technique we'll discuss in the drafting section. For now, be sure to collect information on both sides of your thesis.

Make a list of the strongest arguments for and against your thesis statement. You're not thinking so much in terms of numbers here but rather strength. If you can't make several strong points, you may want to re-work the thesis.

Creating a thesis and researching go together. One process informs the other, and you will often need to go back and forth several times to create a solid thesis that can be backed by research. Just keep following your interests, your curiosity, and the process will stay enjoyable.

Attributions

Introduction to the Writing Process

Introduction to the Thesis Statement

"defensible." https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/defensible. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Step 2: Researching." https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/steps-of-writing-a-paper-237/step-2-researching-243-16871/. Boundless CC BY-SA 4.0.

2.2: Steps of Writing a Paper

2.2.1: Step 1: Prewriting and Choosing a Topic

Prewriting can help you take a general topic and make it more specific.

Learning Objective

Explain the different types of prewriting exercises

Key Points

During prewriting exercises, it is important to record everything that comes to mind without editing as you write. You can use the various techniques to generate a number of different ideas to choose from to formulate your topic.

Brainstorming can help you find where your true interests lie and what part of a topic you might want to delve into further.

Freewriting can help you generate new ideas about a topic by writing nonstop, without editing, for a set amount of time.

Clustering, or concept mapping, can help you refine your thoughts and narrow the scope of a topic by making a map or diagram of different ideas you associate with a central topic.

Key Terms

brainstorming

A prewriting technique intended to generate creative ideas quickly and without editing, through word  or idea association.

freewriting

A prewriting technique in which the writer writes continuously for a set period of time without regard to spelling, grammar, or topic.

concept map

A diagram that shows the relationships between concepts. Concepts are written in circles or rectangular boxes, which are connected by arrows that are labeled with phrases such as "is a," "gives rise to," "results in," "is required by," or "contributes to" that denote the relationships between concepts.

Outlining

A prewriting activity that allows you to organize to your ideas by placing them into an ordered sequence of primary and secondary ideas, which shows the relationship of the parts to the whole. 

clustering

A prewriting technique consisting of writing a central idea in a circle on a sheet of paper, adding related ideas around the circle, and connecting them with lines to show how they related to each other.

Writing often feels demanding and difficult because you are doing two seemingly contradictory things at the same time: creating and containing. You want your ideas to flow like a river, swift and strong, but if you pour out your ideas indiscriminately, the river will overflow its banks. You have to be judicious about the amount of information you include and selective with your word choices. Both freedom and structure are necessary to contain and direct the flow.

When you have no idea what to write about, prewriting can help get ideas flowing. Prewriting refers to what you do before you begin writing, whether that's brainstorming, making a concept map, or making an outline.  By prewriting, you can give organization and logical coherence to your ideas.  You might be tempted to save time by skipping the prewriting stage, but, ultimately, putting a little extra work in at the beginning can save you time—and stress—especially when you're writing a paper close to your deadline. The tools used in the prewriting stage can be used at any point in the writing process to help you clarify your ideas, to help you decide what direction to take, and to nurture creativity when you're feeling stuck.

Brainstorming, freewriting, and clustering are three forms of prewriting that help spark ideas and can move you closer to the heart of what you think and feel about a topic. And, yes, even in an expository composition, heart matters! You're much more likely to write an interesting paper if you care about the topic. Let's explore how these three primary methods work.

Brainstorming

You might have heard the phrase, "There are no bad ideas in brainstorming." This is another way of saying that it can be helpful to gather all of your ideas about a topic (even the bad ones) just to get started. This process is called brainstorming. You do this with another person or in a group, and each person contributes thoughts about the subject in a rapid-fire way. Afterwards, you can pick the best ideas and compile a list.  Often, in the process of brainstorming, you will discover that many of your ideas are already connected to one another.  Having these connected ideas already laid out will help you to form an outline more easily.

Notebooks

Freewriting can be a great way to get ideas moving.

Freewriting

Freewriting can come in handy if you have a general topic but are not sure what you want to say about it. The purpose of freewriting is to help you develop ideas spontaneously and naturally. Set yourself a time limit, and then start writing about your topic, recording thoughts in full sentences as they come into your mind. Do not edit as you go or even look back at what you have written, and try to avoid any distractions. Just keep writing as thoughts occur to you. 

Clustering

The goal of clustering, or concept mapping, is to generate lots of ideas about a very broad topic, much like freewriting. You begin by writing down a key word in the middle of a blank page. You continue without pausing to jot down the words you associate with the key word, circling them, and drawing a line to connect them with the key word. As each word triggers new ideas, you write those down, circle them, and connect them with the word that inspired them, radiating out to create a concept map. You can then choose the ideas you think are best suited for your assignment and use the organization of the concept map to guide your writing.

Outlining

After collecting your ideas, but before turning them into an essay, many people find it helpful to produce an outline.  Outlining shows how particular ideas fit—or don't fit—into a cohesive whole.  You designate your primary ideas and group subordinate or supporting ideas underneath them.  This is the first stage in structuring the essay itself.

2.2.2: Step 2: Researching

Researching your subject is an important step in writing because it helps you narrow your focus.

Learning Objective

Identify useful techniques for the research process.

Key Points

Research is done to back up claims and verify specific data.Research is done to inform your own opinion, not to echo others' thoughts.

Continually asking increasingly specific questions about your topic will help keep your research focused and under control.

Staying open to alternative ideas during the research phase will make for a better-informed opinion and a stronger paper.

Keeping records of resources as you do your research will make the writing process less daunting.

A strong thesis statement is specific, focused, and holds tension between ideas.

Using prewriting techniques during the research phase can help refine and reorient the direction of research.

The primary thing to keep in mind during the research phase is that you're seeking primarily to inform your own thinking on the topic. You’re not looking at what others have written in order to provide you with an opinion. The point of writing the paper is to explore your own thoughts about a topic. Research also helps you verify specific data and back up any claims you may make in your paper. 

It's useful to begin with a few questions related to your topic. These should be aspects of the topic that have made you curious. If you haven't found such questions, do some more prewriting exercises to get your creative juices and intellectual passions flowing.

The attitude with which to begin searching is, "I want to know what other people have discovered when examining the same question." At this point you're not looking for evidence to prove a position. Your mind is open to all the possibilities. Think of it as gathering all the best thinkers on this topic in one room to have a discussion. You're the moderator of the discussion, and you want to hear from everyone before you make up your mind. If you keep this mindset during the research phase, you're more likely to write an engaging final paper.

Narrowing the Scope

Of course, with the vast amount of information available at our fingertips today, it's unlikely you'll be able to read everything ever written on a topic. It's useful, therefore, to create some guidelines for your search that will narrow the pool.

Ask yourself, for example, whether your topic has a timeless quality or is best informed by recent opinion. A paper exploring whether Hamlet's goal of revenge was achieved could draw on sources from all ages, whereas the theme of revenge in recent political events would require current sources.

When you write expository essays, you hear a lot about primary and secondary research. A primary source is authored by the person who conducted the study, or who created the particular theory or line of thought being discussed. Secondary sources may quote primary sources to support a point or draw conclusions from examining many primary sources. Most of the time, it's useful to initially consult secondary sources because they can point you toward the primary sources that most interest you. 

For the purpose of your paper, you'll want to quote the study or the thinker (the primary source) directly—first, because you want to be sure you really understand what the author is concluding (secondary sources can misrepresent the primary source), and second, because by reading the primary source, you'll get the whole picture, rather than just the part selected by the secondary source's author. Remember, you're assembling the best thinkers, and you want to understand all of their arguments.

Diving In

So, how does one begin? With all the cautions about not using the Internet for research, if we keep in mind that we're after primary sources, we needn't be afraid of using a search engine to begin our investigation. While Wikipedia isn't acceptable as a source itself, it can certainly give us a starting point. Putting your question right into your search engine can start you on a treasure hunt. Even just scanning the list, you can jot down some ideas that help better define what you're interested in finding out. As you click, you can begin to follow "clues" to what leading thinkers or researchers (depending on my topic) have concluded.

Here's how a student might winnow a research topic about the women's movement in the 1970s. She begins with the question, "How has the women's movement of the 1970s affected today's women?" Putting that question into a search engine yields many articles, some very recent. Reading a few of these (and taking notes as she goes on exactly where she got her information) leads her to make the statement, "Largely due to the radical feminist faction of the 1970s women's movement, girls born in the twenty-first century have opportunities and expectations well beyond what was possible for those born in the middle of the twentieth century." Though this will not be her final thesis statement (find out why, below), it is narrow enough for her to start finding more specific information.

Be Ready to Change Course

As you narrow the scope of your research, you'll be finding out things you didn't know and encountering perspectives you hadn't considered. Resist the temptation to ignore that which contradicts the conclusion you were heading toward. You might actually change your mind in the course of your research, and that just shows how flexible your thinking is. You can also keep an open mind about how you're going to present your paper. The student above, for example, may find so many comparisons in her reading to the women's suffrage movement that she becomes intrigued and writes an essay contrasting the ERA campaign with the campaign for women's suffrage.

Back to the Drawing Board

At any time during the research process, you can clarify your thinking by using one of the prewriting exercises. Sometimes, a concept map can be of use during this phase, helping you see how things are related. You might find that what you thought was the central question is actually one of your arguments, and most of your lines come off a different bubble, which you can decide to make your thesis.

How Researching Can Go Wrong

Too Many Sources

Continually making your search more specific will help you avoid getting overwhelmed by research.

The reason some people dread research is that they feel overwhelmed. It's easy to do if you continually look at all the information available on a topic. It's simply impossible to read and digest all that information! The solution is to recognize that you're in control of the process. You have a question, you find information that informs you, and you make your question more specific. You keep at it (a more specific question, finding a variety of well-thought-out answers to the question, which lead to a still-more-specific question) until you feel confident creating a statement you can stand behind. 

Another thing that can trip us up is neglecting to keep track of where we find what. There are useful software programs designed to help organize quotes and points with their source material, but all that's necessary is pen and paper or a computer document. As you read, if you find something relevant, immediately make a note of the reference material for that source (book, article, website) and then underneath, enter the relevant research. There are more complicated methods for longer papers, but generally this works fine for essays. Just be sure you know in advance what form your references will need to take, so you gather all the information you'll need. You don't want to have to seek out every source again when you're writing your reference page. Ideally, you'll code each piece of text you put into your paper so that you always know which reference it's attached to, even if you move it around in the paper. 

2.2.3: Step 3: Outlining

After you choose your topic and assemble your research, organize your ideas before you start drafting.

Learning Objective

Recognize the different uses for an outline as a tool

Key Points

Outlining the structure and organization of your paper before you start writing will save you time and help you form a stronger argument.

The order in which you lay out your evidence can determine how convincing your argument is to your readers.

Assembling an argument is a three-step process: (1) drawing conclusions based on evidence; (2) clearly explaining how you drew those conclusions; and (3) structuring your argument for maximum impact.

The Purpose of the Outline

Now that you have chosen your thesis statement and researched evidence to support your various claims, you need to organize it all into a coherent, logical structure.

An outline is a great way to troubleshoot and firm up your argument before you commit to it in a draft. It's like planning out a route before you take your trip: it will save you a great deal of time and will help you foresee roadblocks before you get to them. You'll be able to see whether you have enough evidence to support a given claim, whether your claims support your larger thesis, how to link your arguments and counter-arguments, and what order of presented evidence feels most powerful.

Putting the pieces together

Once you have the elements of your argument, you need to connect them together in an outline, forming the skeleton of an argument that makes sense.

Getting Started

Write your first claim/point on an index card, and then write each piece of supporting evidence on half an index card. (You can use shorthand for the research—as long as you know what it is.) Put all of your ideas on these cards, so you can get the full picture.

For example:

Claim: Public-service campaigns designed to change consumer habits regarding electrical use, while successful, have had only minimal impact on factors contributing to climate change.

Evidence: Study 1: Household electrical use falls by __% after consolidated ad campaign by environmental lobby.

Evidence: Study 2: Scientists report that much more must be done to stem climate change. Lowered power usage by consumers is not sufficient.

Evidence: Study 3: Pie graph showing reasons for climate change.

Backing: Mention recent weather disasters?

2. Do the same with the other claims and pieces of evidence.

3. Now you can rearrange the pieces of evidence as necessary to go with the most appropriate claim. For example, the third piece of evidence, above, might not be necessary for that particular claim, because the other evidence is strong enough. The pie graph might make more of an impact if you wait and include it with the claim about the agricultural environmental footprint. You might also decide that the additional backing about recent weather disasters makes your argument weaker, rather than stronger, because it isn’t evidence-based and has little to do with the claim.

4. Once you’re fairly sure of your order, put tape on the back of the index cards and tape them, in outline form, onto a piece of poster board with the thesis written at the top. Leave this somewhere prominent in your work space, so you can make changes as they come to you.

Questions to Ask Yourself

There is no easy-to-follow formula for creating the perfect argument structure. The way you organize your paper will vary depending on what your goal is and what elements of the argument you want to emphasize. In general, ask yourself the following questions:

Does the thesis introduce and give context for the discussion that follows?

Do any ideas lack a foundation that needs to be addressed earlier in the paper?

Does every claim have the evidence necessary to support it?

Have you weeded out extraneous evidence?

Do you want to lead with your strongest claim, or do you want to save it for the end of your paper so you can finish on a strong note?

Where do you need to make claims explicit, and where will your audience understand them even if they are only implied?

Where do you want to address your opposition? Does it make more sense to do it early on to preempt audience objections, or would you be better off building up your argument before addressing any counter-arguments?

The outline stage allows you to experiment with different ways of organizing. You can (and probably will) change the structure of your argument when you draft your paper, and perhaps again when you revise. If you plan your structure but realize that it isn’t working once you sit down and write, feel free to move elements around. 

Using the Outline as a Tool

Here are some ways to use the outline to make a better argument.

Read your thesis, claims, and evidence out loud to a friend. Ask your friend if the argument makes sense and what he or she would change to make it stronger. Ask what was the strongest part of the argument and why (so you can decide both where to put the strongest punch and how to shore up the other claims).

Leave enough time after creating your outline to get at least a night’s sleep before writing your first draft. Often, some time away will allow your mind to reveal problems with the argument and may even provide the solutions!

If you find that your argument doesn’t feel very strong, don’t hesitate to go back to the research phase to find additional evidence. Most successful writers go back and forth from stage to stage often as they write. As you learn more about both the topic and the argument you want to make, you’ll have a clearer idea of the kinds of studies to look for. As you find additional evidence, you may decide to create a new claim or even to tweak your thesis.

Play devil’s advocate. Looking at your outline board, come up with counter-arguments and questions for each claim. You can even put these on the board on different color index cards. Make it your goal to address these questions and counter-arguments sufficiently in your essay.

Think about transitions. Does one topic lead naturally to another? How is the subject of each paragraph related to the subject of the next paragraph? After each claim, ask, “What does the reader need to know next?” You may need to rearrange the order based on the ease of transition from one topic to the next.

For each index card (each claim, piece of evidence, each backing concept), ask yourself, “How is this important to the thesis?” If you can’t answer, consider that you may be using evidence simply because you collected it, not because it supports the overall idea of the essay.

2.2.4: Step 4: Drafting

The drafting phase creates a coherent path for the reader to follow from thesis to conclusion.

Learning Objective

Describe the different types of paragraphs in an essay

Key Points

The drafting phase is about leading the reader down the path of evidence to reach the conclusion you set out in your thesis statement.

The introduction needs to be both interesting to the reader and a coherent guide to the paper.

Each body paragraph contains one point and the evidence to support the point.

Evidence should not be used to support more than one point.

Anticipatory questions should guide body construction.

The conclusion synthesizes, rather than restates, the argument.

Your thesis will condense a series of claims into one or two sentences. To prove your thesis, you will need to articulate these claims and convince the reader that they are true. Consequently, the majority of your paper will be dedicated to presenting and analyzing evidence that supports your claims.

By the time you start writing, you should already have conducted research and assembled your evidence. You should also know from your outline which pieces of evidence you want to use to back up each claim. What you have probably not finished working out is how you want to present those pieces of evidence and tie all the claims together. The first draft is the time to focus on doing that.

Drafting Best Practices

Writing drafts makes the work more manageable. It also builds in the time necessary for your brain to integrate the information and come up with new ways to present it. With that in mind, here are some ways to maximize the benefits of drafting:

Write without editing: Drafting gets your ideas onto paper, which gives you more to work with than the perfectionist's daunting blank screen. You can always return later to fix the mistakes that drove you crazy. If you get stuck, just jump to the next paragraph. At this stage, your goal is to keep writing. 

Allow time between drafts: One of the great benefits of writing a series of drafts is that it allows your brain to sift through the information layer by layer. When you write and then take a break, especially if the break includes a good night's sleep, the next time you approach your paper you'll have new ideas, and problems will be solved. 

Recognize that you may need to narrow the scope of the paper: If you're feeling overwhelmed and trying to manage mounds of evidence, it may be that the scope of the paper is simply too large. The drafting stage is about seeing what works and what doesn't, so don't hesitate to trim, discard, and shift as necessary.

Revisit prior stages of the process as needed to move forward: If you're feeling stuck or unsure, go play with your outline. If you haven't already put your points on index cards, do that now so you can move them around. If you're finding that your evidence seems scanty, go back to the research phase. And if you need creative inspiration, doodle a concept map around your paragraph's claim or chat about it with a friend. Try not to resist these steps "back"—writing is not linear, it's iterative. Enjoy the benefits of that.

Evidence

The first thing you should assemble is evidence. You cannot make a good argument unless you have strong evidence in sufficient amounts. It is the foundation of the rest of your paper—every claim you make and conclusion you draw must be backed up by the evidence you present.

Evidence can come in many forms: data, written reports or articles, graphs or visual representations, even anecdotes and interviews. Choose whatever forms work best for your argument. While it is important to provide enough evidence to support your argument, be selective about what you use. It is better to choose several very convincing pieces of evidence than to have many different pieces that are only vaguely convincing. Also be careful about how reliable your evidence is. Faulty evidence can damage the credibility of your entire paper, so make sure that everything you use is accurate and comes from a trustworthy source.

Next, you want to be clear on what conclusions you are drawing. Make sure that every conclusion corresponds to some piece of evidence. Also have an idea of how you want to organize your conclusions, particularly the order in which you will present them. Conclusions should build on each other. Figure out how they fit together before you start writing, and your paper's structure will benefit from it.

Warrants are the way in which you link evidence to conclusions. Broadly speaking, "warrant" refers to the explanation of your reasoning. Even though you will not state every warrant openly, you need to make sure that they all hold up under questioning. If required, you need to be able to articulate to the audience why evidence supports claims and conclusions. You should also have an idea of what parts of your argument are complex or important enough that your warrants will need to be stated explicitly.

Paragraph Types

You have your thesis and all of the points of argument and counter-argument mapped out, along with their supporting evidence. The thesis often appears in the opening paragraph of the paper, although you may choose to construct a different form for your paper. Each point of argument or counter-argument will have a paragraph of its own. You'll want to conclude the paper by bringing the points together and giving the reader a sense of closure.

Introduction  

Your paper's opening lets the reader know what the topic is and, usually, leads him or her to your thesis statement.  

Guidelines for construction:

Consider writing the introductory paragraph(s) last, rather than first: It's easier to introduce something you know thoroughly. Also, it's vital to be creative in this first paragraph, and after you've written your paper, you'll feel freer to play with words and ideas. You can go back to the prewriting exercises to spark ideas for the approach you'll take.

Let your topic and style of argument guide your method of introduction: A controversial topic that includes strong parries with counter-arguments might best be introduced by a provocative statement. A story about how the topic garnered your interest might be an inviting introduction to a paper that includes personal anecdotes. You might decide to begin with the question or conundrum that leads to your topic sentence. An analogy or metaphor could be a way to introduce a subject that's difficult to understand or is well-worn and needs a new perspective. Some topics are best described with imagery. Don't limit yourself to pedantic facts that plod toward the thesis statement.

Make it interesting for the reader: A good writer always keeps in mind that there's potential for publication in every piece of writing. Even if on the first round there will be only one reader, write as if you have a broad audience. You need a strong start if you want the reader to read more than the first few sentences. You make it interesting by making strong statements. If it doesn't captivate you, it won't interest your audience. Take a risk and be bold. Why should anyone care about this topic Show us!

Also make it a coherent guide to the paper: At the same time as you're making your introduction intriguing and captivating, you want to make it logical. You needn't give away the secrets of your argument in the introduction (e.g., "I will show that this thesis is true by proving X, Y, and Z"), but you will need to create a clear path to the thesis and give us an idea of the terrain we'll be crossing.

Example:

He's eighteen years old, this soldier, just out of public school. The cliche about not being able to grow a full beard actually applies, and he's cut himself shaving enough to have tiny scars healing on his thin face. He sits on the ground a few feet from the rubble, open-mouthed and barely breathing. The bomb must've been in the engine. The jeep's door is a yard behind him and his buddies, well, he can't see all the bodies, but there's no question that they're dead. And something inside him is dying too.

This story isn't as rare as we civilians would like to think. Estimates from the Veterans Administration put the percentage of military personnel with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) between 11 and 20%, and U.S. veteran suicides average one per day. Although the government is up to $2 billion dollars spent on treatment for PTSD, there is a cap on what is offered to an individual. Asking for additional assistance can simply be too stressful for an already vulnerable veteran. Clearly, more of the military's financial resources must be directed toward rehabilitating men and women who've experienced military combat. It is our responsibility as civilians to ensure their treatment and recovery. 

What technique did the writer use to capture your attention? Did it work? What other elements of a good introduction did you notice here? What elements are missing? Can you find the thesis? What do you think about the use of statistics in the second paragraph? What would you do differently if you were introducing this thesis?  

Body Paragraphs

When analyzing your evidence, be as thorough and clear as possible. You may be familiar with the rhetorical strategy of logos, or step-by-step rational argument. It will probably be helpful to adopt that as a model and conduct your analysis through progressive points, each one of which builds off the previous one. Even if it seems like you are oversimplifying things, it is better to give your audience too much analysis than too little. Make sure every step is included, and that the description of your evidence's purpose is clear. You do not want any part of your process to be ambiguous for your readers, or they may stop understanding or agreeing with your argument.

Revisiting your outline, you'll see your strategy for building your argument. Whether you start off with your strongest point or a counter-argument, or you reel your reader in slowly, your body paragraphs will each have the following elements:

Each paragraph addresses one (and only one) idea in support of the thesis: Think of each paragraph as a point to be made, and then gather the resources around it. You can have several pieces of evidence in a paragraph, but each piece should be supporting that one point. In turn, of course, each paragraph (each point) supports the thesis. Keep in mind that with each paragraph, you're wanting the reader to become less skeptical about your thesis. You're creating an aha moment for the reader with each paragraph's concluding sentence.

Eliminate redundancy: If you can make only three strong arguments in support of your thesis, don't try to add more. You'll weaken your case by muddling the reader. Don't re-use evidence to support more than one point, either—it activates suspicion in the reader. And don't make the common mistake of restating your thesis. Each paragraph needs its own focus. You want the reader drawing the conclusion that this point supports the thesis.

Paragraphs that articulate a counter-argument need to refute it: Perhaps it goes without saying, but if you're going to bring up a counter-argument (and this is an excellent strategy), you need to acknowledge it and then give the reasons it does not lead to the conclusion its proponents espouse. You aren't trying to make their argument, you're bringing it up because you know it's probably in your reader's mind and you must address it to argue successfully.

Anticipating readers' questions makes your argument flow: Look at your argument critically, asking yourself the same questions that you would of a scholarly article. Scholarly articles should be evaluated based on criteria such as thoroughness, credibility, and accuracy. Take the same approach with your paper. Think about the sub-claims you will need to make to clarify and support your main argument. If you make a claim, what other things will you need to prove in order to back that up? What assumptions have you made that need to be articulated to your reader? Anticipating readers' questions and protestations will help guide the flow of the paper and make transitions smoother, as you'll intuit what needs to come next.

There is a subtle art to transitions: You get a better sense of this art as you read and write more. You don't want the reader thinking about form—you want the reader focused on your argument. Therefore, you link your paragraphs with transition sentences that make the path clear:  

"So, we've found that solar power and wind power are economically viable in Costa Rica, but can geothermal power, with its high initial costs, prove a worthwhile investment over time?"  

You can guess that this body paragraph follows others that discuss wind and solar power, and the thesis is about the use of alternative energy sources. This paragraph will likely show that geothermal power is also viable. As a reader, you have yet to be convinced, but your mind is open: you're ready to hear whether or not it's viable. You're not wondering where the paper is going, and you're not confused about the writer's stance. If you find it difficult to create a transition, it may be that you need to move the paragraphs around so that a natural transition arises. 

Conclusion

It's sadly rare to read an interesting concluding paragraph, but it's not a difficult challenge if you keep in mind that you're not restating your thesis, you're retracing your argument in a new way. Just because you're not presenting new information doesn't mean the conclusion must be stale. You have permission to get creative. Here's what the conclusion must do:

Show how the ideas in the paper work together to support the thesis: You haven't made your argument until you tie it all together. You've led the reader down the yellow brick road, but no heels have been clicked until they've read the conclusion. While you don't want to introduce new points or evidence here, you can certainly use new techniques, like imagery or story. You might take the perspective of a skeptic and experience the argument through his eyes, or you might show us a vision of a brighter future now that your thesis has been implemented. The watchword is synthesis, rather than repetition. 

Tie in the more compelling elements from the introduction and body paragraphs to provide a sense of cohesion: If you used an image in your introduction (think of the soldier from the example above), consider recalling it in the conclusion. This offers the reader a sense of symmetry and completion if it isn't oversimplified. Similarly, you can recall images or stories used in other parts of the paper. These act as anchors for the reader's memory, and when memory is triggered, our minds tend to be more open. Think of the crescendo in a piece of music, where the theme is woven together with other elements of the piece, and the listener is moved to tears. Revisiting and weaving, making something new in the process, is what makes a conclusion effective. 

Read over your paper. What stands out to you? What gives you chills? The same will probably be true for your reader. These are the points to recall in your conclusion. Just as a lawyer lays out his case to the jury most powerfully in closing arguments, this is your chance to make your case clearly and concisely.

2.2.5: Step 5: Revising

Revising happens on many different levels of your paper, from individual words and sentences to larger issues of organization and coherence.

Learning Objective

Distinguish between revising and editing

Key Points

Since the most significant changes will be made at the foundational level, it is best to start there.

You revise for purpose and organization.

Make sure that you end up fulfilling your stated purpose and that you remain on-topic for your entire paper.

Also see if you maintain the same voice throughout the paper or if you ended up making unplanned shifts in tone or vocabulary.

Taking breaks before, during, and after the revision process will make it easier.

Letting go of what doesn't work in the paper is a skill to be embraced and valued as a writer.

Key Terms

purpose

An object to be reached; a target; an aim; a goal.

organization

The way in which something is organized, such as a book or an article.

consistency

In logic, a consistent theory is one that does not contain a contradiction. The lack of contradiction can be defined in either semantic or syntactic terms.

Good writing is essentially rewriting. I am positive of this.  —Roald Dahl

One of the best tools in a writer's toolkit is the ability to revise. As with the prior stages of writing, it's actually not a distinct phase that happens only once, but part of a recursive process. Drafting and revising is a dialogue between the inner artist and the inner critic. The artist should not be bothered by the critic while in the creative zone, and the critic should be let loose unfettered during the revision process.

Writing and rewriting are a constant search for what it is one is saying. —John Updike

Revision is almost universally reviled initially, but the more experienced a writer becomes, the more he or she appreciates this pruning process. Revising tightens the argument, strengthens the voice, and smoothes the syntax so you're left with only the best bits.

In the prewriting stage, we ask the inner critic to take a nice long nap all the way through the first drafting phase, but now we awaken it and put it to work.

Revision

Revising ideas so that they are persuasive, cogent, and form a solid argument is the real work of writing.

When Should I Revise My Paper?

Revision begins after you've finished your first draft and is repeated as often as necessary from that stage forward. It's useful, though, to take at least a day and a night away from the draft, rather than jumping into revising immediately. The break will give you the necessary distance from what you have written to look at it with a critical eye and will give you the psychological space to shift from artist to critic. 

Reviewing

Re-reading completed work is essential for more than just catching typos.

How Should I Get Started?

We first need to distinguish revising from editing. You're going to have a separate round of going through your paper to fix grammar mistakes, adjust vocabulary, and make sure you have not repeated the word "very" too many times. There's no need to think about that stage now. What we're doing here is looking at how your argument is constructed.

The kinds of changes you make when revising relate to how well you're making your case. You may have to alter how your argument works or how it's organized. Changes at this level are the biggest ones you will make, which is why there's no point in playing around with word choice or punctuation when you might be rewriting, or even deleting, the entire paragraph.

The first thing to look for when revising is purpose. Now that you've written the whole paper, look back at your thesis statement. Is it still what the paper is about? And if so, does everything in your paper relate back to that argument? Read through the paper now and check for purpose.

The next step is to ensure that your argument makes sense and has power. All of your claims may relate to your thesis, yes, but are you convinced? Remember, you're wearing your critic hat now. Pretend you didn't write the paper and are being paid as a critic. Make yourself very hard to please. Then go through the paper and make notes on these aspects and any others that strike you as you read.

The following are specific categories of things to watch for.

Argumentation

Is the thesis set up in a way that makes you care about it?

Are the claims related precisely to the thesis, or do they become tangential at any point? Are they interesting?

Does the evidence prove what it is intended to prove?

Are there well-placed examples? Are they entirely relevant?

By the end of the paper, might someone who believed differently from the thesis be swayed by the argument? If not, why not? What's missing? And if so, what were the strongest points?

Are there extraneous paragraphs or sentences that seem less important to the point?

Where is the climax of this paper, where you most feel the author's mastery?

Organization

Is the structure of the paper as effective as it can be?

Does the order of the paragraphs make sense?

Does each paragraph build off of what was developed in the previous one?

Does the end of the paper relate back to the beginning?

Are the different steps of the argument linked in a logical manner?

Is every step adequately explained, or are there leaps or holes in logic?

Do some ideas seem to come out of nowhere, or do you feel like you've been prepared for each new concept?

Voice and Consistency

Does the topic capture your interest because of the way it's presented?

Can you tell from the tone that the author cares about the topic?

Is the author's tone maintained throughout the paper?

Does everything in this paper work towards articulating or proving the thesis?

What to Do With Your Critique

Another reason students avoid revising is because they jump too quickly from the critique part of revision to the rewrite, asking the brain to do a creative activity when it's still in the critical mindset.   

So, if you have the time, it would be wise to take a break from the paper again at this point, at least for a little while. Once you've heard from the critic, taking a rest will give your brain time to relax and come up with ideas for revisions, moving naturally back into inspired, creative mode.

When you've taken that time, the process may flow quite naturally. If not, though, recognize that you're repeating the steps you used in drafting.  

Address Foundational Issues

First, you shore up the thesis statement (or rewrite it entirely), then address the claims—rewriting them for clarity or deleting them if they're not strong. You can even go back to your outline and move things around again, reevaluating the order of the argument. Thesis, claims, order: these are the bones of the paper—the foundation. Only after you're satisfied with these do you move to revising paragraphs.

Breaking Down the Big Picture: Revising at the Paragraph Level

For each paragraph and section, ask yourself two things:

What do you want each paragraph to do?

How well does each paragraph complete that task?

We begin with the body of the paper, leaving the introduction and conclusion for later. The body is the meat on the bones. It needs to be evenly distributed and form a powerful whole. For each one, ask the following questions, but ask them in gentler artist mode, rather than in ruthless critic mode:

Is this paragraph necessary to the argument?

Is every sentence relevant to the claim made in the paragraph? 

Is there anything missing from the first sentence to the claim—a piece of evidence or an argument that would make it more convincing?  

Is the argument fully explained?  

Does it flow well?

How does each sentence make you feel? What is the trajectory of your feeling from sentence to sentence to claim?   

Does the information in this paragraph logically lead to the next one? 

Is the transition to the next paragraph smooth and easy to follow?

Fix these things now.  

The introduction and conclusion bring in more of the artistic aspects of writing, and so you'll want to relax the critic a bit here and look at these paragraphs from an interested reader's perspective. Again, not a bad idea to take a break before addressing these two paragraphs.  

Ask these questions for the introduction:

Do the first few sentences intrigue me? 

Does the subject seem compelling? 

Does my attention lapse at any point?  

Does the narrative lead me to an understanding of the topic?  

How do I feel after reading it? Energized? Eager for more?

Take time to revise the introduction now, but consider beginning the revision with a prewriting exercise to get the creative juices flowing again.  

Ask the following questions about your concluding paragraph: 

Is the argument woven together here or simply restated?

Does this paragraph introduce new evidence or claims? 

Do I feel a sense of completion and satisfaction when I finish, or am I left with unanswered questions and unmet expectations?

Is there a sense of artistry, of mastery, to this last paragraph or set of paragraphs?

If you can leave the revision of the conclusion for a few hours after answering these questions, your brain may solve any question of how to skillfully weave your argument together. Allow yourself some quiet time to let images and stories to arise. Re-read the revised introduction as a source of inspiration.

Letting Go

Revising can be a metaphorical journey in letting go. It's easy to get attached to what we've written, and deleting something you've spent hours on can feel painful.  Yes, you know it will make for a better paper in the long run, but you may bemoan all the lost time and effort.  

If you can reframe it for yourself, though, and recognize that revising is not separate from writing but an integral and vital part of the process, you'll see that the next paragraph you write is built on the one you just had to delete. Your final paper will be successful because you trusted the process—trusted your creative mind to come up with new material even better than the old.

That's the magic of revisions—every cut is necessary and every cut hurts, but something new always grows. —Kelly Barnhill

2.2.6: Step 6: Editing and Proofreading

Editing and proofreading ensure clarity, improve style, and eliminate errors.

Learning Objective

Recognize language that is unclear or imprecise

Key Points

Editing and proofreading are concerned with the style of your writing, not the substance of your argument. Editing focuses on the clarity of your writing, particularly word choice, sentence construction, and transitions. Proofreading focuses on mechanics, such as grammar, spelling, and punctuation.

Unlike revising for purpose, editing and proofreading focus on the sentence level of your work. When editing, you look at how clearly you have written. The goal is to make sure that your sentences are easily understood and tightly written.

While editing focuses on improving your writing, proofreading is more like fact-checking it. The goal of proofreading is to find and correct mechanical errors.

It can be helpful to do a peer review: ask one of your peers to edit and proofread your paper. Since they are seeing your work for the first time, they will probably be able to spot problems that you have missed.

Reading a printed page of text backwards is a good way to catch errors.

Key Terms

editing

The process of selecting and preparing written, visual, audio, and film media used to convey information through the processes of correction, condensation, organization, and other modifications performed with an intention of producing a correct, consistent, accurate, and complete work.

proofreading

The reading of text to detect and correct production errors. Proofreaders are expected to be consistently accurate by default because they occupy the last stage of production before publication.

peer review

Assessment, before publication, by an authority or authorities in the pertinent field of study, of the written form of an idea, hypothesis, theory, and/or written discussion of such.

hyperbole

Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.

After revising for purpose, you still have two levels of revision left: editing and proofreading. When you move on to editing, the emphasis is clarity. Then, once your sentence structure and language have been cleaned up, you move on to proofreading, where you check the accuracy of your spelling and grammar.

Editing

Editing, like revising, is something that you will do throughout the writing process. Most of the editorial process will take place after you have worked out your final argument and organizational structure. Editing looks at your work on a sentence-by-sentence level, considering ways to make everything you say as clear and precise as possible.

During the editing process you'll mainly want to consider language, construction, and style.

Editing for Language

With language, the overall question is whether you are using the most accurate language possible to describe your ideas. Your reader will have an easier time understanding what you want to say if you're precise. Be sure to check for the following.

Pronoun clarity: Make sure it's clear what each "it," "he," and "she" refers to.

Precise vocabulary: Make sure every word means what you intend it to mean. Always use a dictionary to confirm the meaning of any word about which you are unsure. Although the built-in dictionary that comes with your word processor is a great time-saver, it falls far short of college-edition dictionaries, or the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). If spell-check suggests bizarre corrections for one of your words, it could be that you know a word it does not. When in doubt, always check a dictionary to be sure.

Defined terms: When using terms specific to your topic, make sure you define them for your readers who may not be familiar with them. If that makes the paragraph too cumbersome, consider using a different term.

Properly placed modifiers: Make sure your reader can clearly discern what each adjective and adverb refers to. 

Hyperbole: See if you can eradicate words like "amazing" and "gigantic" in favor of more precise descriptions. Also examine each use of the word "very" and see if you can find a more precise word or phrase.

Finally, pay attention to wordiness. Writing that is clean, precise, and simple will always sound best.

Editing for Sentence Construction

If you want to make everything easy for your audience to read and understand, start by simplifying your sentences. If you think a sentence is too complicated, rephrase it so that it is easier to read, or break it into two sentences. Clear doesn't mean boring, by the way. Complicated is not a synonym for artistic!

Consider how balanced your sentences are within a paragraph. You don't want every sentence to have identical length and structure or to begin the same way. Instead, vary your prose. 

This is also the time to add transitions between clauses and sentences that aren't connected smoothly to each other. You don't need to introduce every sentence with "then," "however," or "because." Using these words judiciously, though, will help your reader see logical connections between the different steps of your argument.

Editing for Style

Editing for style is more difficult, because as writers gain practice they usually develop their own unique stylistic quirks. That's a good thing. Instead of thinking that you should write a certain way, what follows is general advice for the kinds of writing that can help or hurt your work.

Think about how you use active and passive verbs. Often, rewriting a sentence to take it from passive to active will make it simpler and easier to read. Consider the following sentences:

Many of those who have held the office of governor of Illinois in the past twenty years have been met with charges of corruption due to political misdealings.

Over the past twenty years, many Illinois governors have faced political corruption charges.

The second is shorter, less wordy, and clearer. In this case, changing from passive to active made a major improvement. Please note, this doesn't mean that you should never use passive verbs. Some sentences do read better with them. It's up to you to decide which works better for your scenario.

In general, whenever you can replace an "is" or a "was" with an action verb, your writing will feel more vibrant. "The horse was shaking with fear," is slightly less powerful than "The horse shook with fear." Better yet, if the context tells us the horse is frightened, we can say, "The horse trembled." "Trembled" is a more specific form of "shook," which is itself an improvement over "was shaking." This step enlivens research papers perhaps more than any other.

Another thing to look at with your verb use is parallelism—using the same pattern of words to provide balance in a sentence. If you are listing things, try to make them all the same part of speech. Look at these examples:

Unbalanced: "John likes reading, his studies, and talking."

Parallel: "John likes reading, studying, and talking."

Both are grammatically correct, but the parallel sentence has a better rhythm.

Proofreading

Proofreading is the final stage of revision. It's okay to correct typos or grammatical errors if you catch them in early drafts, but you should save thorough proofreading for your final draft. Wait to begin this step when you are sure that you will not be changing anything else in your paper.

Here are some of the things you should do every time you proofread:

Check spelling. Be alert for typos.

Check punctuation.

Make sure that you are using the correct formatting and citation style.

Check that your verb tenses remain consistent.

Look at subject/verb and pronoun/antecedent agreement.

Try reading each page backward. This doesn't work so well for editing, but it can really help with proofreading. You'll catch many of the above problems this way.

Tips for Editing and Proofreading

Know your errors. As you get used to revising, you will probably realize that there are some errors you make more frequently than others. Maybe you have a tendency toward wordiness. Maybe there's a particular rule of grammar that always gives you trouble. Whatever your particular weakness is, you can pay special attention to it when revising.

Secondly, take the time to do multiple re-readings. Start by going through for one particular kind of error, and only pay attention to that. Then choose another thing to focus on, and read your paper again. Keep going until you're satisfied that your paper is as good as it can be. Prioritize the issues you know you're most likely to find.

Before concluding any written assignment, you can use your word processor's spell-check feature in order to identify any overlooked spelling mistakes in your work. However, it's important to look for errors yourself as well. People are more capable of understanding words in context than word processors. For example, spell-check software can't always tell whether "their," "there" or "they're" fits in a specific sentence, but a person always can. Therefore, it's a good idea to use both computer spell-checking, and good old-fashioned human editing with a red pen and paper copy! 

Spelling error

The aim of proofreading is to catch surface mistakes in spelling, punctuation, formatting, etc. -- such as on the restaurant sign above, where the writer misspelled "omelette" as "omelate."

2.2.7: Step 7: Completing a Final Review

When you're done with all the steps of revision—revising for purpose, editing, and proofreading—make one final review of your paper.

Learning Objective

List questions you can use to self-evaluate your paper

Key Points

Look one more time to make sure that you meet the criteria of the assignment and that you have taken care of all the changes you wanted to make.

Ask yourself if you think the paper is now finished, or if you still have things you want to improve upon.

A final review after revisions will help you determine if your paper is ready to be turned in.

Key Term

criteria

Standards for judgement or evaluation.

After spending so long looking at your paper on the level of individual words and sentences, it can be helpful to return to the big picture. Before you turn your paper in, read it over one more time. You do not have to look for specific problems. Just try to get a general sense of what your paper has turned into.

It can be helpful to imagine that you are reading somebody else's paper during this final read-through. What would you say to a peer if this were his or her paper instead of your own? Does it have a clear thesis? Does the argument make sense? You can also try reading your paper out loud to see how it sounds.

Directions

Reviewing work throughout the writing process helps make sure it's moving in the right direction.

The purpose of a final review is not to prompt major changes, as you already addressed those when you revised for purpose. Instead, doing a final review will help you see how all the changes you made work together as a whole.

This is also your last chance to make sure you meet the criteria of the assignment. Are you still saying what you intended to say? Did you complete the task you set for yourself in the introduction? Look at how your argument has developed and whether you are happy with it. If you're not, you can go back into revision mode. If you are, then congratulations—you can finally say that your paper is complete.

Evaluating Your Process

At this point, you can make a final assessment of your process. The learning comes not only from your research and writing, but also from reflection about the process you went through. After you read your paper, ask yourself the following questions:

How creative is the paper? If it feels a little bland to you, you might consider spending additional time using the prewriting activities the next time you write a paper. You might also consider reading more of the type of writing you're doing to get a feel for the style and to spark your own imagination.

Does it feel like your best effort? Do you feel some disappointment when you read your paper, as if you know you could have done better? Time is often a factor here. Budgeting in time for reflection isn't often taught, but it's a crucial aspect of the creative process.

Where did you get tripped up? Looking back over the experience of writing, which parts of the process did you avoid? Which parts were difficult to wrap up and move on from? Which parts did you enjoy most? Can you see all of the answers reflected in your writing? Is the writing good but the research scanty, or is it heavily cited but disorganized? How might you address balance in the process next time around?

What did you enjoy? Dwell for at least a moment or two on the parts of the process you most enjoyed. Did you have a great conversation with a friend during the brainstorming session? Did you write an especially strong paragraph for one of your claims? Did you let yourself sleep on a problem and wake up with the answer? Did you feel like you found your voice when writing the introduction? Now give yourself a moment to consider how to expand those good feelings into the rest of the process next time you write.

Writing is an art. It's not something we're born doing, yet it's something we're asked to do a lot in professional work. Making the process enjoyable for yourself is both useful and important. You have the power to make your next writing experience even better. Keep working at the parts of writing that are more difficult for you while expanding on the phases that delight you, and your next paper is bound to be more enjoyable, more inspired, and, ultimately, better.

Attributions

Step 1: Prewriting and Choosing a Topic

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"concept map." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/concept_map. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"clustering." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/clustering. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"freewriting." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/freewriting. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Planning and Prewriting." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewriting%23What_are_Some_Other_Ways_to_Get_Ideas.3F. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"SML Notebooks / 20090903.10D.52443 / SML | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/3882941631/. Flickr CC BY-SA.

Step 2: Researching

"Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_(3).jpg." https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_(3).jpg. Wikimedia Commons CC BY 2.5.

Step 3: Outlining

"five-paragraph essay." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/five-paragraph%20essay. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"The Cain Project in Engineering and Professional Communication, Three Modules on Clear Writing Style: An Introduction to The Craft of Argument, by Joseph M. Williams and Gregory Colomb. September 17, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m17224/latest/?collection=col10551/latest. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.

http://nopsa.hiit.fi/pmg/viewer/photo.php?id=1235441. http://nopsa.hiit.fi/pmg/viewer/photo.php?id=1235441. CC BY.

Step 4: Drafting

"Supporting Your Thesis." https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/paper-execution-2/drafting-your-paper-12/supporting-your-thesis-65-1333/. Boundless License: Other.

"Getting Help Meeting College Writing Expectations." https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/introduction-to-college-level-writing-233/introduction-to-college-level-writing-234/getting-help-meeting-college-writing-expectations-83-8682/. Boundless License: Other.

""So What?"." https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-5-boundless-presentation-641/so-what-659/so-what-662-943/. Boundless License: Other.

"Assembling Your Argument." https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/paper-execution-2/planning-your-argument-10/assembling-your-argument-48-8497/. Boundless License: Other.

"Generating Further Questions." https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/paper-execution-2/drafting-your-paper-12/generating-further-questions-66-1672/. Boundless License: Other.

Step 5: Revising

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"consistency." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/consistency. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"organization." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/organization. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"purpose." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/purpose. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Revising." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Revising%23A_Change_for_the_Better. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Revision in process | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/juliejordanscott/5613078605/. Flickr CC BY.

"Lina, proofreading my essay. hot. | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/bmh4you/54929599/. Flickr CC BY.

Step 6: Editing and Proofreading

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"peer review." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peer_review. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"editing." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/editing. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"proofreading." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/proofreading. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Using the Dictionary and Thesaurus." https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-effective-sentences-252/word-choice-30/using-the-dictionary-and-thesaurus-effectively-137-1341/. Boundless License: Other.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Editing." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editing. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Revising." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Revising%23Differences_Between_Revising.2C_Editing.2C_and_Proofreading. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"All sizes | Omelate | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/smudie/44633735/sizes/z/in/photostream/. Flickr CC BY-SA.

Step 7: Completing a Final Review

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Reviewing." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Reviewing. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Freedom of choice - Image &amp; Photo by Krzysztof Poltorak from Details - Photography (22077920) | fotocommunity." http://www.fotocommunity.com/pc/pc/display/22077920. Foto Community CC BY.

2.3: Prewriting Techniques

2.3.1: Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a prewriting technique used to help generate lots of potential ideas about a topic.

Learning Objective

Describe the process of brainstorming

Key Points

Brainstorming is listing all of your ideas about a topic—even the bad ones—without censoring or editing, in order to get your ideas flowing.

Brainstorming is at its most effective when drawing on the power of interaction.

Casual, free-form note-taking while reading or engaging in conversation can be a form of brainstorming. 

Group brainstorming can be a great way to engage with partners or team members on a project and make sure everyone's ideas are heard. 

Key Term

brainstorming

Listing ideas about a topic, even the bad ones, until you find one you like.

At its most basic, brainstorming is listing ideas. If you're having trouble coming up with a good topic for a paper, sometimes it helps to write down every idea that occurs to you, even the bad ones, until you have a strong list going. 

Brainstorming is useful for figuring out what you're interested in. The technique can take many forms, but perhaps the of them most effective is that it draws on the power of interaction. We've all had those great conversations in which someone says something that sparks an idea or memory in someone else, which then sparks a further idea, and before you know it, everyone is feeling energized. 

You can create one of those conversations about the topic of your paper. Just start a chat with a friend or a group about the topic and have your pen and notebook handy. Jot down notes as the conversation progresses and you hear ideas that spark your interest. For an essay on the women's movement of the 1970s, you might generate the following list by talking with friends or calling your mother:

equal pay

choice of career

freedom

purpose in society

valuing the "feminine"—still an issue?

messages girls get now

effects of the movement on men

successful or not?

Another way to brainstorm is to read an article or a book chapter on the topic and write down whatever occurs to you as you read, even if it has nothing to do with the text. You're interacting with the text like you might interact with a person, letting the author's ideas spark new thoughts in you.

You can also brainstorm in a group if you're working on a writing project with a partner or a team. Find a whiteboard, pick someone to write, and record ideas, topics, and notes as they come up. In addition to being helpful in finding a topic, this process can be fun and help break the ice with your fellow students so that everyone feels as though they can share in the discussion.

Once you've generated a lot of ideas through brainstorming, you can choose a few of them to do further prewriting exercises with to eventually create your thesis statement. Perhaps the most important thing to remember about this process is that "there are no bad ideas in brainstorming." While this saying is not strictly true—for example, it would be a bad idea to tackle an assigned essay about feminism in the 70s by writing about the life cycle of the lunar moth—it is valuable because it helps you remember that brainstorming isn't about coming up with a perfect solution. It's about considering your topic on many levels until you find an approach you're excited about.

No bad ideas

Sometimes, it helps to stop censoring yourself and write down every idea you have—even the bad ones. You can decide on the best one later! 

2.3.2: Freewriting

Freewriting, a prewriting technique, can help you break out of writer's block by letting your ideas flow naturally.

Learning Objective

Describe the process of freewriting

Key Points

Freewriting is writing without editing in order to get your ideas flowing.

Freewriting can be a useful prewriting technique to help think of different directions your paper can take.

To freewrite, get a pen and paper (or open up a blank computer document) and set yourself a time limit. Then start writing about your general topic, recording any thoughts as they come into your mind. No editing allowed!

Key Term

freewriting

The process of writing loosely, without self-censorship, in order to develop ideas spontaneously and naturally.

What Is Freewriting?

Have you ever experienced writer's block, that frustrating feeling of knowing what you want to say but not how to say it? Freewriting is a great way to get away from that. It's simple: You just write, and don't worry about whether or not what you're writing is good or not—you're just trying to get yourself into a natural flow.

Freewriting is a great prewriting technique. It will come in handy if you have a general topic but are not sure what you want to say about it. Get a pen and paper (or open up a blank computer document) and set yourself a time limit. Start writing about your general topic, recording thoughts as they come into your mind. Do not edit as you go, or even look back at what you have written. Just keep moving on as thoughts occur to you. The purpose of freewriting is to develop ideas spontaneously and naturally.

Example 1: Hamlet

Consider this example, a two-minute freewrite on the topic of revenge in Hamlet:

People say Hamlet is a play about revenge, but is revenge successful if he dies at the end? Is killing Claudius enough to make Hamlet happy? Did he succeed at anything, or did he just destabilize Denmark further? Fortinbras seems like a better king—at least he is interested in government. But he isn't the rightful ruler, which is part of why Hamlet was upset with his uncle in the first place. Or was he? Is he more upset about the murder or the usurpation? Does he want to rule or just to get revenge? Is his quest for vengeance the act of a justice-seeking prince or are revenge and rulership at cross-purposes?

There are a few good things to notice about this freewrite. First, the paragraph has many more questions than observations or answers. This is perfectly fine. Freewriting is not a place to work out answers to questions, but rather to figure out exactly what question you want to ask.

The other thing to notice is the general trajectory of the paragraph. The different questions are connected to each other, albeit very loosely. Again, this is fine. Freewriting does not need to be rigidly organized as long as it stays relatively close to its general topic. Often, freewrites will end up producing a unified line of thought even without you trying to connect everything. There is a significant difference between the starting point of "Is Hamlet's revenge successful?" and the final questions of "Does Hamlet want to get revenge or become a ruler?," and "Can you seek revenge and be a ruler?" All three are different approaches to the same broader question, though. In fact, those second questions can be refined into more specific answers to the first one.

A topic from the first question might be "Hamlet does not successfully achieve his goal of vengeance." A topic from the last questions might be "Hamlet fills his stated goal of killing Claudius, but since he leaves Denmark without a king he ultimately fails at correcting the wrong he wanted to correct." Both ideas are far more focused than what you started with.

Example 2: Lolita

Now that you've seen an example of freewriting and the research topics it can point you toward, try it with this example:

Humbert Humbert is a creepy dude who basically ruins Lolita's life. But he recognizes that he's being judged by the world for his actions and he says he's full or remorse. Is he sincere or just playing it up for the "jury"? He sounds sincere, though flowery. Do his elaborate professions of guilt work to absolve him or make him seem purely theatrical? What about how he talks about Lolita? He doesn't even call her by her real name, which is Dolores. In a lot of ways, she's more of an object of his fantasy than a real person. Does that make his behavior less condemnable because he's clearly nuts? Or more condemnable because he's unempathetic to the extreme?

What research direction could this freewriting example bring you toward?

2.3.3: Clustering and Concept Mapping

Creating a concept map is an easy way to visually represent the relationships among your ideas.

Learning Objective

Describe the process of creating a concept map

Key Points

Clustering is the process of writing down a broad topic, then creating a concept map where different clusters of related subtopics are represented visually.

Clustering is an effective way to narrow your focus if your topic is too broad: you can pick one branch of your concept map to focus on, rather than the large central topic.

To make a concept map, write down your main topic in the center of a page, then make branches and sub-branches with related subtopics as you think of them.

Key Terms

clustering

A process in which you start with a main topic, then explore clusters of related subtopics.

concept map

A diagram of related ideas.

If you are having trouble breaking a big topic down into smaller ones, you might want to try clustering. This is a tactic in which you write down a very broad topic or idea and then make a concept map, in which you diagram smaller ideas or categories (clusters) that relate to the central topic.

Say you are writing a paper that teaches your classmates how to perform a task. You have one page to provide detailed instructions about an activity. If you have chosen "gardening" as that activity, you will not be able to give an adequate description in the space provided. There's simply too much information. You have to choose a smaller task associated with gardening. The question is, which one?

All the things you linked to "gardening" are smaller tasks you could describe. You can even break them down into further levels of detail. For example, the subcategory of "researching and purchasing plants and seeds" can be broken down into separate bubbles for research and purchasing. The purchasing bubble could be broken down into a) where to purchase plants, b) when to purchase plants, c) how much to pay for different plants, and so on, until you reach the right level of specificity. In this way, you can break your general topic down from "explaining gardening" to something like "explaining how to purchase a sunflower plant."

The goal of clustering, much like freewriting, is to come up with lots of different possibilities. Then you can choose which ones you think are best suited for your assignment. Make sure that you don't censor yourself when you're making a concept map: add anything you feel is related to your topic and let it flow!

Attributions

Brainstorming

"Step 1: Prewriting and Choosing a Topic." https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/steps-of-writing-a-paper-237/step-1-prewriting-and-choosing-a-topic-47-7910/. Boundless CC BY-SA 4.0.

"128239619_1eb47bcb3f_b.jpg." https://www.flickr.com/photos/jurvetson/128239619. Flickr CC BY 2.0.

Freewriting

Clustering and Concept Mapping

"Step 1: Prewriting and Choosing a Topic." https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/steps-of-writing-a-paper-237/step-1-prewriting-and-choosing-a-topic-47-7910/. Boundless CC BY-SA 4.0.

2.4: Building Your Paper

2.4.1: Modes of Persuasion: Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

Careful rhetoric, or the art of crafting arguments through tone and presentation of evidence, can make your argument more convincing.

Learning Objective

Identify appeals to logos, pathos, and ethos

Key Points

Rhetoric involves the "how" of making arguments—it asks you to think about what kind of writing will make your argument most convincing to the reader.

In classical rhetoric, there are three main strategies to appeal to the reader: logos, pathos, and ethos. 

Ethos, logos, and pathos each affect the reader differently. When choosing a strategy, think about what kind of argument you want to make and when each strategy might be most useful. 

Keeping readers' potential objections in mind will help you select the most appropriate strategies.

While persuasive strategies make a good paper more convincing, the most credible arguments are those which honestly examine the issue from all sides using the most reliable sources of information.

Audience analysis, developing a thorough understanding of an audience (education, values, beliefs, etc.), is crucial in making choices relating to the use of logos, ethos and pathos.

Key Terms

logos

A technique that relies on reasoned argument.  

pathos

A communication technique that makes an appeal to the audience's emotions; used most often in rhetoric and in literature, film, and other narrative arts.

ethos

A Greek word meaning "character," used to describe the guiding beliefs or ideals that characterize a community, nation, or ideology. In rhetoric, the term is often used in reference to the credibility of an author based on his or her expertise and/or personal character.

Using Rhetorical and Audience Analysis

A rhetorical analysis calls upon readers to closely read a text and determine several characteristics about it, including author, context, purpose, and emotional appeal and/or effects. In other words, readers must take a look at Aristotle's three persuasive appeals to the audience: logos, pathos, and ethos. As writers, you'll use these tools to build a convincing argument.

Choosing persuasive appeals depends on the purpose of the argument, but it also stems from audience analysis. Knowing as much as possible about the audience you are trying to reach can help you to determine which appeals are most likely to be effective. Things to consider include the audience's core values, beliefs, and the level of knowledge they already have about the subject you are addressing. Some arguments employ all three of these appeals, while others rely on a strategic application of just a couple of them.

Logos

Logos relies on the rigorous use of logic and reason. Arguments based on logos usually employ deductive and/or inductive reasoning. Deductive, or top-down, reasoning applies a general rule to draw a conclusion about a specific case or cases: "All men are mortal. Arturo is a man. Therefore, Arturo is mortal." Inductive, or bottom-up, reasoning constructs a premise or rule by generalizing and extrapolating from a specific case or cases: "Every person I have ever known of has eventually died. I have never heard a report of any person living forever. Therefore, people are mortal."

Pathos

In contrast to logos, pathos relies on evoking an emotional reaction from the audience. The evidence in a pathos argument is more likely to be personal or anecdotal. Moreover, the success of the argument depends on the author understanding the audience's values and beliefs, and manipulating them.

Ethos

Ethos works by giving the author credibility. By building credibility with the audience, the speaker or writer also builds trust with his or her audience. Ethos can be used to stress the personal credentials and reputation of the speaker/writer, or cite reliable authors or sources. Writers and speakers who employ ethos to strengthen their argument should avoid attacking or insulting an opponent or an opposing viewpoint. The most effective ethos develops from what is stated, whether it is in spoken or written form.

Writers can pull elements from any of these strategies as needed to make a persuasive argument. 

When and How to Use Pathos

Generally, pathos is most effective when used in the introduction and conclusion. You're trying to grab readers' attention in the beginning and to leave them with conviction at the end, and emotion is a useful tool for those purposes. Describing the plight of people affected by the issue at hand might open the paper, for example, and then be revisited in the conclusion.  

There are subtle ways to use pathos throughout the paper as well, and you can do that primarily through word choice. Your reader is going to be looking for holes in your argument and will likely bristle at any hint of being manipulated with emotion in the body paragraphs, preferring that you stick to the facts. But by choosing your words carefully, you can make suggestions that have a subconscious effect on the reader. Here's an example:

Though the candidate is older than most who've held the office, he is known to be energetic and active.

Though the candidate is older than most who've held the office, he is known to be spry.

When you read the first sentence, what image formed in your mind? Maybe an older guy smiling and jogging or shaking hands with supporters? And the second sentence? The word "spry" is generally used only for elderly people, so you likely imagined someone slightly different, perhaps a little older and a little less energetic. Since we're talking about a politician, the word "spry," while ostensibly meant to mean "active and energetic," is putting a suggestion in the reader's head that the politician might be a little old for the job. A little sneaky? Well, you might think of it that way, but you can also have a lot of fun building an effective argument using words that affect the reader in very particular ways.

There are countless words and phrases that hold a common meaning for your audience other than their defined meaning. Can you imagine when you might choose the word "backpack" over "bag," or "uzi" over "gun," or "guardian" over "parent," or "paperback" over "book," or "liberal" over "unrestricted"? What are the connotations of the chosen words versus their synonyms? 

While the more obvious uses of pathos—in which you make a direct emotional appeal—may come to you early in the writing process, these subtle choices of suggestive words might emerge as you revise. Use this tool sparingly, though, so the subconscious suggestion doesn't become obvious to your reader and therefore have the opposite effect.

When and How to Use Logos

Generally speaking, logos is what people expect in an argument these days. We are a society oriented toward logical reasoning and scientific proof, so you're probably going to need to draw on logos at some point in your paper and will likely use it in every body paragraph. A good argument will usually include both facts and reasoning and may be bolstered by examples.

Consider this example from "Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking," published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: 

Smokers are more likely than nonsmokers to develop heart disease, stroke, and lung cancer.

1. Smoking is estimated to increase the risk—

For coronary heart disease by 2 to 4 times

For stroke by 2 to 4 times

Of men developing lung cancer by 25 times

Of women developing lung cancer by 25.7 time

2. Smoking causes diminished overall health, increased absenteeism from work, and increased health care utilization and cost.

Perhaps you didn't need convincing that smoking is bad for your health, but if you did, you'd have a difficult time arguing with these statistics, all footnoted on the CDC website, all based on reputable studies.  

If we were including this evidence in a paper about the dangers of smoking, we could decide that such weighty evidence can stand on its own: excessive reasoning might actually weaken the argument. But if we are writing a paper about why cigarettes should be made illegal, or some other, more radical idea (and a more interesting paper), we might need to make our reasoning clear:

We know, then, that cigarettes are extraordinarily dangerous—many times more dangerous than car accidents—and highly costly. Yet, while we've increased safety standards for cars steadily since the 1970s, required drivers and passengers to wear safety belts, and are even considering technological innovations that will mechanize highways to eliminate driver error, we have as yet done little to regulate the use of cigarettes. Discouraged through taxation, yes, official warnings, yes, but direct regulation, no.

The reasoning in the above paragraph takes one of the statistics and explains its relevance to the argument. You'll need to do this in almost every case so that the link you're making between the evidence and the claim is clear.

It can be useful to think of logos as building a case, where your thesis statement is the thing you're trying to prove beyond a shadow of a doubt. You're the defense attorney. What would make this an air-tight case? What might be in the jury's mind that you need to address so that they won't go into deliberation with questions or doubts? What kinds of evidence might convince them? Planning out the body of your paper is like planning to present your evidence in the courtroom, step by step. Too much information will get boring and muddle the jury, so you'll want to stick with your most salient examples and most convincing evidence.  

The Art of Ethos 

In Aristotle's day, ethos usually applied to the technique a speaker used to establish credibility for himself, the "why you should listen to me" portion of the speech. Now, we establish our reliability mostly by demonstrating a thorough knowledge of the topic and by citing credible sources. We need to let our readers know that the studies we're citing are from peer-reviewed journals, for example, and the opinions we're quoting are from people who know what they're talking about.

While acupuncture was once relegated to the realm of "quacks" and "snake oil," it is now considered by mainstream medical science to be an effective treatment for pain. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) website states that, "Results from a number of studies suggest that acupuncture may help ease types of pain that are often chronic such as low-back pain, neck pain, and osteoarthritis/knee pain. It also may help reduce the frequency of tension headaches and prevent migraine headaches. Therefore, acupuncture appears to be a reasonable option for people with chronic pain to consider" (NIH, 2014). Doctors themselves seem glad to have found a possible remedy for chronic pain. In fact, a third of acupuncturists now practicing in the United States are also medical doctors (NCCAM, para. 2). This once-suspect art is increasingly embraced by physicians looking for additional options for their most challenging patients.

Here, we're bolstering our claim that acupuncture is accepted as an effective tool for pain relief by quoting the governmental agency NIH, which is widely recognized and respected, and by talking about doctors—also well-respected—embracing the practice themselves in order to better serve their patients.  

Your sources need to be credible to your skeptics. Most of the objections to our claim, above, will likely come from people who trust conventional medical practices and are wary of trying practices they haven't encountered. This particular audience, then, would be more likely to consider the NIH and a group of medical doctors credible than they would, say, the American Academy of Medical Acupuncture or a group of Chinese practitioners. Part of the ethos of your argument, then, is finding resources your audience would find credible. By extension, you earn readers' respect for quoting sources they consider trustworthy.

Don't discount your own knowledge and experience, though, when considering the ethos aspect of your argument. The introduction and conclusion, again, might be the best spots to tell your audience how you're connected to the topic. If you're writing about school vouchers and you attended both public and private schools, that detail might give you some insight into both sides of the dilemma and, therefore, credibility with your readers. If you're an artist and feel you would have dropped out of high school were it not for your art classes, you would do well to include your experience in a paper about funding for the arts in education.  

Your reader is counting on your ability to be objective, as well as knowledgeable. You'll demonstrate your objectivity by using sources that are widely respected and by gathering information from both or many sides of the issue. Real rhetoric is about honestly seeking answers, and while there is some persuasive technique involved, the most satisfying argument is one that is thoroughly explored. In the end, then, your credibility lies with your diligence and your willingness to present your findings with transparency.

Capture the attention of your audience with rhetoric

Using appropriate rhetorical tools and a well-thought-out argumentative structure is a way of ensuring the strength of your writing. In addition, rhetoric gives you ways of capturing the attention of your audience and leading them to the conclusions of your argument.

2.4.2: Approaches to Your Introductory Paragraph

The effective introductory paragraph introduces the topic in a way that makes the reader interested and curious.

Learning Objective

Order the elements of an introductory paragraph that uses concept-funnel structure

Key Points

An effective technique for introductions is to open with a sentence or two that grabs the reader's attention.

There are common ways to introduce a topic that are overused and therefore not recommended.

The concept-funnel structure leads the reader from a broad concept of the topic to the thesis statement.

The mirror construction hits each claim of the paper in the same order they're presented in the body of the paper.

Stylistically, it is advisable to leave out overt references to the construction of the paper.

Leaving the introduction until the end of the drafting process makes it easier to write.

Grabbing the Reader's Attention

There are many ways to begin a paper, some straightforward, others more creative. Papers generally need to aim for an objective voice and stay close to the facts. However, you have a bit more freedom in the introduction, and you can take advantage of that freedom by finding a surprising, high-impact way to highlight your issue's importance. Here are some effective strategies for opening a paper:

Make a provocative or controversial statement

State a surprising or little-known fact

Make a case for your topic's relevance to the reader

Open with a quote, a brief anecdote, or imagery that illustrates the issue

Take a stand against something

Stake a position for yourself within an ongoing debate

Introduce a challenging problem or paradox

After you grab the reader's attention with the opening, make a case for the importance of your topic. Here are some questions that may help at this stage: Why did you choose this topic? Should the general public or your academic discipline be more aware of this issue, and why? Are you calling attention to an under-appreciated issue, or evaluating a widely acknowledged issue in a new light? How does the issue affect you, if at all?

Concept-Funnel Structure

A popular introduction structure is the concept-funnel. In this structure, you begin with general information about your topic, narrow the focus and provide context, and end by distilling your paper's specific approach. As you move from general background information to the specifics of your project, try to create a road map for your paper. Mirror the structure of the paper itself, explaining how each piece fits into the bigger picture. It is usually best to write the introduction after you have made significant progress with your paper, so you can accurately mirror its structure.

A Strong Beginning

A common interpretation of the funnel structure is to start very broad and sift down to the thesis, but if you start too broad, you will lose your audience in the first line. Resist the temptation to begin your introduction with phrases like these:

From the dawn of time ...

Throughout human history ...

In today's world ... 

From earliest memory ...

Webster's defines [topic] as ...

These openings have been used so often, they no longer grab our attention but trigger us into anticipating something dull and predictable. Instead, think of that top opening of the funnel as piquing the reader's interest about the topic you're writing about. You can do this with imagery ("A six-year-old girl in a tattered blue dress stands on the street corner at 11 p.m., her eyes searching every car ..."), with a provocative statement ("The U.S. government is no longer 'of' or 'by the people' but is controlled by billionaires"), with context ("On any given evening on 65th Street between Broadway and Amsterdam in the city that never sleeps, there are crowds gathering in front of Lincoln Center"), or even with a concession to an opposing argument ("Amanda Wilcox's 19-year-old daughter was murdered while home on winter break. Amanda and her husband Nick were completely devastated and beset by both grief and anger").

Mirroring the Construction of Your Paper

After grabbing readers' attention with an interesting opening, you'll want to lay out your basic argument. This provides your readers with structure, appealing to the logical mind, after grabbing them through their emotions or their imagination. Leading them from your claims to your thesis, which is generally at the bottom of the "funnel," is also a subtle act of persuasion, whispering, "Once I've proven all of these points, you'll see that [my thesis] must be true." You could actually say that, but generally it's better to let the reader draw that conclusion by reading the solid, well-substantiated argument that is your paper. What you want to do here is simply draw a line from your opening to your thesis statement, using your claims.

While you're appealing to logic and reason in this part of the introduction, you needn't leave artistry behind entirely. Think of this part as weaving together each claim with the emotion you brought up in the beginning, bringing the strands in one by one. Together, they create the thesis.  

The basic structure is this:

Introduce the general topic in an interesting way

Claim 1

Claim 2

Claim 3 

Any other claims

Thesis statement

Try to leave out overt references to the fact that this is an essay (e.g., "In this essay, I will prove that ..."). The form is there to provide the structure, giving you the freedom to be artistic within it.

Amanda Wilcox's 19-year-old daughter was murdered while home on winter break. Amanda and her husband Nick were completely devastated and beset by both grief and anger. The culprit was caught, and friends of the couple would offer comfort by telling the couple that the man would pay for what he did, hopefully with his life. Amanda and Nick could see how people would think these words would help. Revenge seems satisfying on the surface: at least there is something that can be done to "right the wrong." But neither of these broken-hearted parents could find solace in vengeance. They recognized that putting her murderer to death would not bring back their daughter, even if it might feel justified. They were also aware that even when the case against a felon seems air-tight, DNA evidence has cleared 263 convicts since the year 2000. The families of murder victims around the country have reason to feel anger, hurt, and even utter hatred for the person who took away their loved one. But the death penalty is a solution based on passion and emotion, not a viable punishment for any crime in a civilized society.

In this paragraph, the example in the opening takes us through the claims, getting us closer to the thesis. This is a way of weaving the paragraph together. The reader is ushered into the topic and through the claims without being conscious of reading an essay.

Write the Introduction Last

Saving your introductory paragraph until the end of your drafting process will put the power of your paper's argument behind you as you create. Ask yourself these questions before you begin:

Why is this topic interesting?

What's the most fascinating or shocking thing I found in my research?

What kinds of things surprised me as I read and wrote?

How would I tell a friend about what I found?

If I were to pick up a book to read about this topic, what would capture my imagination?

Allow yourself to enjoy the process of writing your introduction. Let your creativity run free here, within the general structure. Take some risks! This is the place where your personality can show through, to the delight of the reader, who is undoubtedly ready and waiting to be surprised.

2.4.3: Approaches to Your Body Paragraphs

A powerful argument depends on solidly and appropriately constructed body paragraphs.

Learning Objective

Order the elements of a body paragraph

Key Points

The structure of each body paragraph includes a topic sentence, evidence supporting the topic sentence, a conclusion, and a transition.

The topic sentence is an arguable statement related to the thesis, introducing the main idea of the paragraph.

Part of creating an effective argument is choosing the most appropriate and powerful from the various forms of evidence and ways to present them.

Transition sentences lead readers to the next claim in the argument.

Key Term

topic sentence

An arguable statement summarizing a claim that supports the thesis.

Constructing a Paragraph

The body of the paper presents your argument point by point to reveal the wisdom of your thesis. You decided on the order of these points during the outline phase, but as you write you may choose to reorder them for maximum impact. You may also decide to scrap points that don't have the impact you expected them to have. Flexibility is a useful quality during the drafting phase.

Each body paragraph will be organized around a claim, which you'll form into a topic sentence. You'll generally begin each paragraph with its topic sentence, then you'll move to the evidence that led you to this claim before ending with a concluding sentence that weaves claim and evidence together. You'll also have transition sentences that link the paragraphs together, and they can appear at the end or beginning of each paragraph.

Sample Body Paragraph Structure

Topic sentence (announcing the claim)

Evidence 1

Evidence 2

Evidence 3

Concluding sentence

The Topic Sentence

Like your thesis, each topic sentence is an arguable statement, not a fact. The facts come in the form of evidence that you'll present in the next sentences. It needs to be clear how the topic sentence relates to your thesis and it should address only one point.

If you're having difficulty formulating a topic sentence, you can write the following stem: "One reason I believe my thesis statement is true is this:" and then complete the sentence.

One reason I believe my thesis statement is true is this: The imagery in the opening lines of [Frost's poem] "Home Burial" immediately evokes the tension between husband and wife.

Then you can leave off the stem and simply begin the paragraph with what you believe. Check to see whether the statement sums up one of your claims. If it doesn't, you may need to revisit your claims and rework them so they fit your argument at this stage of the writing process. It's common for your opinions to become clearer and more sophisticated as you spend more time with your topic, so don't be afraid to make some changes.

Check, too, to see whether the topic sentence is arguable and clear. Occasionally, it may take two or three sentences to express the claim, and that can work, but being able to encapsulate it into one sentence means you understand what you're communicating thoroughly enough to write concisely.

Presenting Evidence

As you approach the structure of an individual paragraph, you'll want to consider how this particular claim would be best presented. You probably found different types of evidence in you research: quotes from people who've studied your topic extensively, stories or analyses from people who've had direct experience with it, and studies that offer conclusions. Recognize that using a series of any one of these types of evidence could become repetitive and either bore or overwhelm your reader. Pounding statistic after statistic into a paragraph may seem convincing as you're writing, but it might have the opposite effect and make the reader disengage.

Instead, write your topic sentence and look over the evidence you've gathered for that claim. Is there a first-hand account that might best illustrate this point? Perhaps a quote from a well-known authority would capture your reader's respect right away. It could be that a recent study found exactly what your topic sentence claims, and you want to lead with that.  

Just as with the introductory paragraph, you'll need to consider that rather than simply offering proof of your opinion, you're also courting your reader. Variety of presentation will keep a reader interested in your argument, as will the strength and reliability of the evidence. If you're hesitating to relate a story or to cite a study because you're not sure whether it's convincing, leave it out. Your reader will feel disrespected by any attempt to slip in a weaker point. There is no advantage to bulk over strength.

There are some organizational tools that can give you direction when forming your paragraphs. Just some of the ways to present evidence are as follows.

Cause-Effect

This type of paragraph explains why something happened. Often, you'll want your reader to understand the relationship between your claim and your thesis, and this technique can link them.

Example: While people may cite various reasons for getting married, underneath every one of these claims is the need for security.

Problem-Solution

Here, the writer presents a question or issue and then shows how to solve it. This type of paragraph can show the reader why you're proposing your thesis. The evidence can both prove the problem statement and begin to reveal the thesis-related solution.

Example: One problem with the increasing emphasis on college sports programs is the inevitable decrease in academic focus.

Compare-Contrast

This method exposes the similarities and differences between two things. This technique can provide greater clarity as to how your thesis makes more sense than an alternative idea.

Example: While the methane gasses produced by damming may be somewhat problematic, our primary concern should be the far greater amount of methane produced by the beef-production industry.

Sequential Exposition

This simply tells what happened in what order. It can be used to explain to a reader how events led to what the thesis proposes or the problem it seeks to rectify.

Example: Often, when a company is in financial trouble, management begins layoffs, which lead to lowered company costs, which leads to greater investor confidence, which leads to increased stock prices, which increase shareholder wealth and, often, management compensation.

Description

Offers details about the phenomenon or event being discussed. This is particularly useful when you want the reader to get the same picture of the issue that you have.

Example: His prison cell consisted of a toilet and a metal bed frame with a thin, stained mattress and a small plastic pillow. The air was stagnant and close, with fans only in the main eating area.

Concluding Your Paragraph and Transitioning

Your concluding sentence will often have an echo of the topic sentence in it while moving the reader forward to the next topic.

We see, then, that trees actually do have a chemical system of communication, stunning as that may seem, but what might that mean for the human-forest relationship?

The first part of the sentence, in this example, sums up the evidence just presented, and the second part introduces the next topic. Likely, the topic sentence of the next paragraph will suggest a shift in the way people approach forest management.

Of course, you won't want to make every concluding sentence a question. You might decide to have a concluding sentence and then a transition sentence.

The fact that toxic sewage is still being dumped into our waterways is disheartening in itself. Even more startling, however, is the knowledge that the government's regulatory agencies have all but endorsed the behavior.

In this case, we can presume the paragraph gave evidence that toxins are polluting streams, rivers, lakes, and oceans. From the transition sentence, we anticipate that the next paragraph will contain evidence that government agencies not only knew about it but somehow supported the practice.

The Collected Paragraphs

When you've written each body paragraph, look them over to check for variety in your presentation styles, strength of argument, logical paragraph positioning, and overall readability. While a good mix of styles makes the paper much more interesting, the most important thing is that each claim is presented at its most powerful. Your conclusion will serve the purpose of weaving your claims together, but before you move to that stage, take one last look at the body and make the changes necessary to strengthen your argument as much as possible.

2.4.4: Approaches to Your Concluding Paragraph

The conclusion, while not adding new information to the argument, can inspire readers to believe the paper's thesis.

Learning Objective

Order the elements of a successful concluding paragraph

Key Points

The concluding paragraph summarizes the paper's argument and restates the thesis.

Reversing the concept-funnel format of the introductory paragraph can be a useful form for the conclusion.

Recommendations, projections, or challenges can follow the argument summary. 

Revisiting any images, quotes, or questions offered in the introduction can be satisfying to the reader and add power to the argument.

The concluding paragraph (or, rarely, paragraphs) summarizes the argument, showing how it supports the thesis. Its purpose is to leave readers with a strong sense of the argument, thereby encouraging them to adopt the thesis as their own.

The concept-funnel approach often used for introductions can be reversed here, moving the focus from narrow to broad. Along the way, you can include recommendations for future behavior, if behavior change is applicable to your essay. Here you have a common format for concluding paragraphs:

Thesis statement revisited

Claims repeated, woven with transitions 

Recommendations, projections, or challenges

Introductory opening revisited

One way to think of the conclusion is as "The Tale of the Conquering Hero." The hero recounts his adventure by first telling you his accomplishment, then recounting the steps that led to it, and finally putting it into a broader context.

Thesis Statement

It can be effective to begin the conclusion with the thesis statement, after a transition stem, such as, "It's now quite clear that ... ," or "As we have seen, the preponderance of evidence shows us that ..." You needn't necessarily repeat the thesis statement word for word, but its essence should be the same as it was written in the introduction.

Restating the thesis signals to the reader that you're no longer going to introduce new evidence and are wrapping up your argument. The reader makes an emotional shift with this sign, and so making your purpose known immediately helps keep the reader interested.

Revisiting the Argument

Next, you'll restate your claims, but you'll want to do this in a way that flows. Your reader will check out quickly if you're simply marching him or her through the paragraphs. This time, you're considering each claim as a drop in the bucket of your argument. You're no longer trying to prove the claim. Your reader has already seen the evidence supporting the topic sentence. Think of the conclusion as the philosophy phase of the paper, where you take a broader look at the issue and consider the points of the argument together.  

As you're weaving your claims together, you can get creative. Snatches of evidence, such as a quote or a statistic, can be included for emphasis if used sparingly. You may decide to change the order, if you want the claims to flow a little differently here than they did in the body of the paper. Your point here is to show the reader how these claims inform one another to support the thesis, and to emphasize the significance of each claim to the argument. 

"We found that [claim 1], which on its own would have demanded a significant shift in policy, but when we also consider [claim 2], it is no longer a question of need, but of urgency in the highest degree."

Sometimes, the process of writing the conclusion will reveal a hole in the argument, and you can use this draft as a prompt to go back to the research phase to fill the gap in knowledge. Keep in mind, though, that any new claims or evidence must be integrated into the body paragraphs of the paper. There should be no new evidence or claims presented in the conclusion.  

Optional: Recommendations and Challenges

In this stage of the conclusion, you've wrapped up your argument and are now asking people to think more broadly. You can offer recommendations for readers to change their behavior based on what they've learned from the essay. You can paint a picture of the future—either one where the current state continues or one where the changes you consider in the paper are implemented. Or you can make a societal challenge of some kind.

"So, if grief is natural, and we have seen that it is, we must discontinue our practice of avoiding the discomfort of death and the sadness of the bereaved. We must begin to embrace the lows of life as well as the highs."

"We have seen that polyamory is a viable social alternative to marriage and can result in relationships even more committed and reliable, but what does that mean for you? Will you continue to cling to tradition and spurn those who live in non-traditional ways? Will you be one of the forces slamming the door shut on social acceptance of 'different others'? Or will you open your mind and your heart and recognize that there are other ways of being that work as well as your own?"

"Armed now with the knowledge of how dire the situation is, we must act. The three most important areas for us to implement personal changes are ..."

This portion of the conclusion won't apply to all topics, and it's certainly not a requirement. You may choose to leave the reader to consider the implications of the argument, rather than creating a kind of call to action. You may want to try both versions and see which one you prefer.

Optional: Introductory Opening Revisited

While this option may feel unnecessary, after all that has gone into your conclusion, at least consider revisiting the opening to your introduction. It can be very satisfying to a reader to have the closure that even just a few such sentences can provide.

Say, for example, that your introduction began with a description of a pre-teen girl in a drug-riddled city being forced to walk the streets to earn money for her parents' drug habit. If it's a powerful image, it will linger in the reader's mind. Bringing the reader back to that image in the conclusion can close the emotional loop for the reader, showing him or her how individual action, or a change in policy, can change the situation for this girl. The power of that emotion can significantly add to the power of your argument, so you wouldn't want to waste the opportunity.

You may have begun your paper with a quotation, rather than an image, or with a question. Revisiting those words now offers a spark of recognition in the reader and subconsciously makes the argument seem solid and well thought-out.

While you needn't get overly emotional with your ending, you do want to make the conclusion powerful. Therefore, avoid weakening your argument in any way here, by, for example, making concessions, belittling yourself as inexpert, or admitting to not doing enough research. Make your case and stick by it, ending strong and with integrity.

Attributions

Modes of Persuasion: Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

""Audience Analysis"." http://www.comm.pitt.edu/oral-comm-lab/audience-analysis. University of Pittsburgh - Department of Communication CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Logos." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logos. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"ethos." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ethos. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Rhetorical Analysis." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Rhetorical_Analysis%23Critical_Reading. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Analyzing assignments." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Analyzing_assignments%23Rhetorical_Analysis. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"pathos." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pathos. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking." http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/health_effects/effects_cig_smoking/. Centers for Disease Control Public domain.

"Acupuncture: What You Need to Know." https://nccih.nih.gov/health/acupuncture/introduction. National Institutes of Health Public domain.

"All sizes | [Portrait of June Christy, 1947 or 1948] (LOC) | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/library_of_congress/5354175531/sizes/l/in/photostream/. Flickr Public domain.

Approaches to Your Introductory Paragraph

"“Introduction and Thesis.”." https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-across-disciplines-254/writing-in-the-natural-and-social-sciences-the-research-paper-and-the-imrad-model-275/introduction-and-thesis-80-10363/. Boundless License: Other.

Approaches to Your Body Paragraphs

Approaches to Your Concluding Paragraph

2.5: Quoting and Paraphrasing

2.5.1: The Basics of Quotations

When you're writing a paper, it is important to avoid vague generalizations, especially when it comes to paraphrasing other authors.

Learning Objective

Identify problematic generalizations

Key Points

Vague terms like "critics say" or "is widely regarded as" that attempt to take the place of particular examples weaken evidence by not citing specific sources.

Quoting and paraphrasing the ideas and knowledge others have set forth is a way to show your reader how you arrived at your conclusions.

You must always cite ideas, as well as any other information other than commonly known and accepted facts.

Quotations are most appropriate when the author is particularly well-known, when you want to add an air of authority to the information, and when the exact words are particularly eloquent.

Paraphrasing gives you more flexibility with sentence structure and allows the reader to hear your unique voice and reasoning in the paper.

Key Terms

quote

To repeat the exact words of another with the acknowledgement of the source.

quotation

A fragment of a human expression that is being referred to by somebody else.

paraphrase

To restate another's thoughts or ideas in different words.

Avoiding Generalities

When writing a paper, it is important to avoid vague generalizations, especially when it comes to characterizing the thoughts of others, whether they hold similar or contrary positions to your own. Catch-all phrases such as "critics say" or "is widely regarded as" are vague and unconvincing because they have no basis for verification. These types of phrases might seem useful to condense research where you've discovered ubiquitous agreement on a particular position, but in those cases, it would be better to cite a series of authors or quote a particular instance rather than make a sweeping generalization. A properly placed quotation can articulate your position and provide substantiation at the same time. Most often a quotation is taken from the literature, but also sentences from a speech, scenes from a movie, elements of a painting, etc. may be quoted if they further the argument you're trying to make.

Did it drive you crazy as a kid when an adult in your life told you you had to do something "Because I said so!," and offered no other justification? Think of that when you're about to write, "They say that ... ," or "Most people agree ..." You're not giving the reader any reason to believe you. They're going to furrow their brows just as you did as a child, and your trust with your reader will be compromised.

Collecting Quotations

While you're researching your topic, when a brilliantly worded sentence catches your eye, save it. When you find a statement summarizing evidence you plan to use or evidence you think you might use, save it. Look for statements that concur with your argument, but also for assertions that contradict your claims, as you'll use these for refutation purposes. 

You can use programs like Zotero or EndNote, or simply drag the quotation into a document. Just make sure you're also saving the complete source material (for both in-text citations and the reference page), so you won't have to go searching for it later. If you can organize your quotations by topic, so much the better. They'll be much easier to find when you need them.

When to Quote, Paraphrase, and Cite

It's important first to recognize when citations are required. In the U.S., ideas are always attributed to the thinker or writer, as are any facts discovered through research. If you find information at a particular source, you'll usually need to cite that source, though commonly known and accepted facts (such as the undisputed dates of a particular war, for example, or the pound equivalent of 32 ounces) need not be cited.

There are times when a quotation will give you maximum impact and times when paraphrasing is more effective. Look at the following alternatives in a paper about transforming cultural mores.

"The weak can never forgive. Forgiveness is the attribute of the strong," (Gandhi, 1931).

In fact, as Gandhi said in 1931, offering forgiveness is not a display of weakness, but indeed, its opposite.

In this case, while the second sentence isn't a bad summary of the idea, both the syntax of the direct quote and the reputation of the speaker make the quotation far more powerful than the paraphrased reference. Quotations are useful when the author is particularly well-known, when you want to add an air of authority to the information, and when the exact words are particularly eloquent or historically significant. This one meets all the criteria.

Here's one from an essay about the use of alternative medicine: 

One bright spot in the ongoing campaign against human trafficking has been the United Nations, founded after the World War II.

In this case, there's no need to quote or paraphrase. The first part of the sentence is your opinion, and the second part is general and undisputed knowledge. Widely accepted facts like when the UN was founded needn't be paraphrased or cited. If you were to then go on to tell us what exactly the UN has done to combat human trafficking, you'd need to cite your sources.

Here's an example of paraphrasing:

There are actually 69,436,660 registered Catholics in the United States (22% of the U.S. population) according to the American bishops' count in their Official Catholic Directory 2013.

You wouldn't need to quote the directory, because there's no more power in the quote than in your summary of it. But since it is a precise number that isn't common knowledge, you do need to cite it. Notice that the word "actually" is coloring the phrase. It's the author's way of disputing a possible perception that the religion is in decline. This is how using your own words gives the option of contextualizing. Paraphrasing gives you more flexibility with sentence structure and allows the reader to hear your unique voice and reasoning in the paper.

The catch with paraphrasing is that you need to be sure that all the words you're using are actually your own, other than conventional terms and designations (like "registered Catholics"). If there are particular phrases within a work you're paraphrasing that you'd like to quote directly, you'll want to put quotes around those phrases, like this:

In Democracy Matters, for example, West advocates revisiting the foundation of the U.S. Constitution to recognize and counter "free market fundamentalism" which he believes, among other policies, has undercut the document's intention (West, 2004). 

Here, the phrase "free market fundamentalism" is clearly a phrase unique to West's work and must be recognized as such by using the quotation marks.

To Quote or to Paraphrase?

Consider whether you should quote, paraphrase, or simply state the following examples:

On life: "90 percent of it is half mental." 

About 68 percent [of people over age 25 in the U.S.] do not have a bachelor's degree.

Fewer homes were lost to fires in San Diego County last year than this year. 

Bitter herb combinations have been used for centuries to stimulate the digestive system.

"[The disappearance of honeybees] is the biggest general threat to our food supply."

The first sentence is a good example of something you should quote. Knowing who said it (Yogi Berra) is important, because it's an original thought, and because knowing the speaker is one reason why it's funny. You wouldn't want to paraphrase it because the exact words are important to the humor and the wording is unique to the speaker.

Number 2 could be paraphrased or quoted, but paraphrasing might be the better choice because you could leave out the brackets and put the statistic in context of whatever you're writing about—for example, "In fact, despite the assumptions of many middle class parents, only about 32 percent of people living in the United States have completed a bachelor's degree," (2015, Politifact.com).

Number 3 is a bit of a gray area as far as citation is concerned. You might assume that it's a common fact that could be found anywhere, and so you wouldn't need to cite it. That said, it may depend on the context of the quote, and whether it's a disputed idea. If your reader questions it, you're going to lose credibility without a citation that he or she can follow up on. If it is disputed, you'll want to paraphrase and cite the source. It's not likely that quoting directly would provide more credibility, so it is therefore unnecessary.

Number 4 would generally not need to be cited, though you'll likely be following it up with more specific information that will. You might consider that a quote from an herbalist or doctor offering the same information might give the skeptical reader a feeling of being on more solid ground. 

Number 5 is one you'll want to quote directly, as the person who said it (Kevin Hackett, of the USDA) is a key person in the debate about honeybee colony collapse and what to do about it. You'll note that there's no question about whether or not to cite the source, because it's an original thought, not a common fact.

You see, then, that while the issue of citation is relatively straightforward—when in doubt, cite—the question of quotation versus paraphrase is subtler. It's a decision based both on the needs of the argument and artistic sensibility.  

The revision process will be helpful in this regard. You'll notice if your paper plods from one quote to another, overwhelming the reader with other people's words. You'll also notice whether it seems less than authoritative and needs the backing of direct quotes. The citations, throughout, are a foundational element, showing the reader how your argument developed and why you think as you do about the subject. Let those whose shoulders you're standing on support you, but don't let them take over. It's your paper, after all.

2.5.2: Introducing and Formatting Quotations

To quote an author, copy the author's exact language and use quotation marks to show you are reproducing language from another source.

Learning Objective

Apply formatting rules for using quotations

Key Points

Use quotation marks around a statement to give the original writer or speaker credit.

When you introduce a quote, pay close attention to the proper use of quotation marks and related punctuation.

To paraphrase is to restate another author's point in your own words. When you paraphrase, you don't need to use quotation marks, but you still need to give credit to the author and provide a citation. Otherwise, you are committing plagiarism.

Key Terms

quotation

A fragment of a human expression that is being referred to by somebody else.

paraphrase

A restatement of a text in different words, often to clarify meaning.

quotation marks

Symbols used to denote a quotation in writing, written at the beginning and end of the quotation.

Quoting versus Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is using a particular idea that you took from another author and putting it in your own words. Quoting is using the exact words of another author. Both methods help you introduce another author's work as a means of strategically improving the persuasiveness of your paper. Generally, you will choose a quotation rather than paraphrasing when you want to add an air of authority to the information you're presenting, when the words you're using are offered by a source important to your particular topic, or when the exact words have historical relevance or are particularly eloquent.

To quote an author, you should copy the author's exact language and frame the words with quotation marks, which signals that you are reproducing exact language from another source. Quotation marks give full credit to the original author, so you'll need to make it clear whose words they are.  

Introducing a Quotation

An introductory tag is one way to effectively introduce quotations. This is also known as a "signal phrase." An introductory tag is a phrase that introduces a quote by providing the authority's name and a strong verb. For example: 

Desmond Tutu counters, "Racism, xenophobia and unfair discrimination have spawned slavery, when human beings have bought and sold and owned and branded fellow human beings as if they were so many beasts of burden."

This is only one way to introduce a quotation, however, and if it's the only method you use, your paper could begin to sound stilted. Consider incorporating the quote into a sentence in other ways, as well. You may, for example, explain the quote before offering it:

Thousands of years ago, Gautama Buddha was offering teachings on how not to hold on to hostilities, saying: "You will not be punished for your anger, you will be punished by your anger." This is by no means a new problem.

Formatting and Punctuating Quotations

Quotations call for special rules regarding punctuation:

If a quotation is introduced formally, use a colon.

The author explicitly states: "Socrates was only a figment of Plato's imagination."

If a quotation is set off with "he said" or "she said" (or the implication of it), use a comma preceding the quotation.

Use an ellipsis (...) to indicate that there is more to the quote than you offer here.

He brought listeners to tears when he ended his last broadcast with his familiar, "And that's the way it is ..."

If your quotation has a quotation within it, the inner quotation needs a pair of single quotation marks and the outer needs a pair of double quotation marks.

This is the pivotal part of the story: "The doorman cried out, 'You forgot your coat!' as he ran after the cab."

If you choose to break up a single-sentence quotation with your own words, use commas to offset the quotation from your explanation.

"In the middle of the novel," the critic claims, "the main character's reflections are restricted by his sense of impending change."

Periods and commas should be placed inside the quotation marks. Colons, semicolons, and dashes should be placed outside the quotation marks. Question marks and exclamation points should be placed inside the quotation marks, unless the punctuation applies to the whole sentence (not just the quote).

When the team's best player said, "We're in for a bad season," it became clear that the team's morale was flagging.

Was America really listening when President Kennedy said, "Ask what you can do for your country"?

When to Use Brackets Within Quotations 

When using quotations, you need to be very careful to copy the words as they appear in the source text. However, you may find that a quotation does not grammatically align with the way you want to use it, or that the relevance of the quotation may not be readily apparent to a reader. When that happens, you might want to change it slightly in order to make it fit your essay. In such cases, square brackets should be used around words not contained in the original quote.

Brackets can be used to do the following:

Clarify meaning: 

"[Fiestas] are the lifeblood of this region. We need to honor our traditions even, and especially, after tragedy." Sr. Gomez told reporters. (The original quotation used the pronoun "They," in answer to a reporter's question about a fiesta.)

Enclose a change in verb tense to better flow with your sentence:

Silven maintained the assertion throughout his life: "It seems unlikely that this pairing [was] due to a human need for companionship."

Enclose an explanatory phrase if a word isn't clear:

Renowned family therapist Virginia Satir once mused, "I have often thought had there been somebody like me around, something might have been able to be done [about her own divorce]."

Block Quotations

If you are using a long quotation (four or more typed lines), instead of quotation marks, you should indent the entire quotation five spaces. If the quote is two or more paragraphs, indent the first line of each paragraphs an additional five spaces (maintaining the indent of the rest of the quote). When using this format, you do not need to use quotation marks.

Quotation on a rock

A quote on the wall of Thierry Ehrmann's "Abode of Chaos." This graffiti-style quotation cites its source text and page number.

2.5.3: Paraphrasing

Appropriately paraphrasing the ideas of researchers and authors can add strength to your argument.

Learning Objective

Distinguish between paraphrasing and summarizing

Key Points

When using your own words to discuss someone else's work, you are paraphrasing; when you use the words of someone else, you are quoting. 

Both methods help you to introduce another author's work as a means of strategically improving the persuasiveness of your paper, by providing an example or evidence relevant to a claim that you have made.

Arguments are more powerful when source material is woven through the paper with paraphrasing, saving quotations for moments of impact, authority, and eloquence.

If a quotation needs to be substantially changed, it may be better to simply paraphrase the author's ideas in your own words.

Fully understanding the context of the words you're paraphrasing, and citing the source completely, gives an authentic representation of the source and strengthens your argument.

Key Terms

context

The surroundings, circumstances, environment, or background that determine, specify, or clarify the meaning of a piece of writing.

quotation

A fragment of a human expression that is being referred to by somebody else.

citation

A paraphrase of a passage from a book, or from another person, for the purposes of a scholarly paper.

As you're writing your paper, you'll want to bring in evidence to support your claims. You'll generally do this through paraphrasing and quoting what you've discovered in the research phase of your writing process. Here, we'll focus on paraphrasing, noting its appropriate use and differentiating it from other forms of citations.

Paraphrasing Is Different from Summarizing

When you summarize an article or book, you're providing an overview of the work, highlighting its major findings or themes. A summary is like looking at a distant source through a telescope: the general shape and ideas are clear, but the details are fuzzy. You may need to offer a summary if your topic is a book or a study potentially unknown to your reader, so that he or she has a basis for understanding the argument to come, but when offering evidence, you'll usually be choosing to paraphrase rather than summarize.

You want to lead your reader, in your paper, along the path that brought you to your intellectual conclusion: the thesis statement you set out in the introduction. That means you'll be presenting the reader with the research that convinced you of this statement, including statistics that impressed you, others' arguments for or against a particular position, facts you encountered that shifted your perspective, and even stories or examples that touched you emotionally. These all came from somewhere, and you'll want to share their origins with your readers. There are a couple reasons for this:

Readers like to be able to check things out for themselves. You may tell them that 39.4% of adults in the U.S. are obese, but they may find that hard to believe. When they check out the source (the Centers for Disease Control), however, they'll likely be convinced and more willing to accept the premise you're building on.

Citing sources makes you credible with both your audience and with those you're paraphrasing. It shows you're not pretending that the information you've gathered is solely from your own mind, but you're building on what others have said, observed, and experienced. That's what research is all about.

Paraphrasing will be the most common way to share with your readers what you've found. When you paraphrase, you're maintaining the same level of detail as the original source (unlike summarizing), but you're synthesizing what you've read to create a seamless argument.

Why Not Just Use Quotations?

Imagine how choppy a paper would be, jumping from one person's words to another, to another, and another with only transition sentences in between. It would be very difficult to follow, and your own voice would be drowned out by all the "experts." Expository writing isn't about giving us other people's opinions—it's about giving us your own. Those other voices are there to support you and your argument.

What you'll be doing, then, is writing what you think and weaving in evidence to support your thinking. For example, look at the following paragraph:

"An ethical approach, while both admirable and arguably an improvement in today's educational system, does not go far enough as a method of truly connecting human beings to one another and to their true nature. In her book Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education, Nel Noddings offers a more feminine approach to education—one based on receptivity—that prioritizes caring over justice."

You see here that the writer has a firm grasp of both the topic and the approach Nel Noddings describes. Even though he is citing evidence and even a specific source, the voice is still his, weaving Dr. Noddings's thoughts into his own. This kind of weaving is the primary reason to use paraphrasing.

Another reason is to save direct quotations for impact. If you quote only when the source will offer an air of authority to your argument, when the exact words are either historically important or particularly eloquent, or when the source is of primary importance to your topic, the quotes will carry much more weight. In all other instances, paraphrasing will move the narrative along much more smoothly, tying it to your own style along the way.

Even when you want to use a quote, it sometimes needs to be changed so substantially to fit your narrative that it may be better to simply cite the author's ideas in your own words.  

Authenticity in Paraphrasing

As with any instance of appealing to another author's work within your own, whether you use paraphrasing or quotation, the primary criterion for use should always be its relevance to your thesis and claims. However, you'll need to be sure that you're not twisting or manipulating another author's words to match your own purposes.

Make notes during the research phase on the context of each piece of evidence you find, and double-check that context for relevance to your own claim. This will ensure that you have not misused another author's work for your own purposes. 

If you find an article that quotes a book, an interview, or another article, do your best to track down the original source so you can be sure of its context. For example, people sometimes quote Robert Frost as saying, "Good fences make good neighbors." If you read the poem, however, you'll find that the sentence is ironic: it's a sad quip offered by the neighbor of the narrator in the poem, not a maxim for how to live well.

Forms of Citation

Another part of authenticity, of course, is citing your sources correctly and completely. The form of citation within the text will vary based on the style you're asked to use, but you will need, at a minimum, the title of the work and the name of the collection (if any) it is in, the publication date, the author's or authors' name(s), the editor's name, if any, and the page number(s) of the material you're paraphrasing. All of this helps your reader find the source material.

Interlocking architectural components

Paraphrasing links your own thinking with the ideas and research of others, creating a strong and engaging argument.

Attributions

The Basics of Quotations

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Catholic Church in the United States." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_United_States. Wikipedia CC BY-SA.

"Sandalwood Oil." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandalwood_oil%23cite_note-1. Wikipedia CC BY-SA.

"Introducing and Formatting Quotations." https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/quoting-and-paraphrasing-240/introducing-and-formatting-quotations-91-1349/. Boundless License: Other.

"Quoting Relevant Passages." https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/quoting-19/quoting-relevant-passages-90-535/. Boundless License: Other.

"Writing Better University Essays/Main part." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Writing_Better_University_Essays/Main_part%23Weasel_Terms. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"quotation." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

Introducing and Formatting Quotations

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"quotation marks." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation_marks. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"paraphrase." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paraphrase. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Paraphrasing." https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/quoting-and-paraphrasing-240/paraphrasing-93-1348/. Boundless License: Other.

"Introducing Quotations." https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/quoting-19/introducing-quotations-92-8169/. Boundless License: Other.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Quotation Marks." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Quotation_Marks. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"quotation." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Quote on Rock.jpg." http://www.flickr.com/photos/home_of_chaos/3081512135/in/photostream/. "Ecrire, voil&#224; l'acte terroriste absolu... _DDC3707.JPG | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." CC BY 2.0.

Paraphrasing

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Nel Noddings." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nel_Noddings. Wikipedia Public domain.

"citation." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citation. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Writing Better University Essays/Referencing." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Writing_Better_University_Essays/Referencing%23Citations_and_Quotations. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"quotation." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Interlocked | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/mpcevat/7214860714/. Flickr CC BY 2.0.

2.6: Incorporating Objections and Opposing Views

2.6.1: The Importance of Addressing Opposing Views

When you consider and counteract opposing arguments, you strengthen your own argument.

Learning Objective

Match an argument to a corresponding counterargument

Key Points

An argument is a written or spoken form of defense. An argument should take a stance about a particular point of view, thesis, or claim.

Try to anticipate what objections your readers might have to your argument, and try to understand why they might object.

An academic argument supports its claim with sound reasoning, research, and evidence such as facts, statistics, and quoted opinions from authorities on both sides of the argument.

A skeptical reader has a doubtful, questioning attitude, and expects a thorough presentation of logical reasoning and evidence. This can be a helpful audience to keep in mind when writing your paper.

In the research phase, gathering evidence against your argument will help you refute counterarguments in the writing stage.

Key Terms

counterargument

An argument that is opposed to another argument.

argument

An attempt to persuade someone of something, by giving reasons or evidence for accepting a particular conclusion.

refute

To prove something (a statement, theory, claim, argument) or someone wrong.

An argument must, by definition, take a stance on an issue and provide evidence for a particular conclusion. However, writers may neglect the next step, which is just as important: discussing opposing viewpoints and providing counterarguments.

Sincere Exploration of Counterarguments

Just as a criminal trial is ostensibly about finding out the truth of what happened during the crime, consider that the aim of your paper is to get to the truth of the issue you're addressing. There is far less satisfaction in making a convincing argument if objections are left unanswered and evidence is swept under the rug. You wouldn't want your verdict to be overturned on appeal!

Research Both Sides

The best way to counteract an opposing viewpoint is to anticipate what an opponent might say. When researching the topic, then, don't limit yourself to sympathetic sources; find sources that disagree with your argument. Take note of their rationale and use of evidence. That way, you will be familiar enough with these opposing viewpoints to argue against them. When you encounter dissenting opinions, try to figure out why smart and rational people would hold those positions. What evidence do they look at? How do they interpret that evidence? Why might they disagree with your point of view?

When we're passionate about a topic, emotions can sometimes cloud our rationality. We tend to have disdain for opposing arguments and aren't open to even hearing what those on the other side have to say. To move yourself out of this emotional realm and back into the realm of the well-reasoned argument, try taking a strategy from debate tournaments. Debaters prepare for tournaments by gathering information on both sides of a topic. They actually don't know which side they'll be arguing until the debate begins, and so they must be just as prepared to argue the side they don't agree with as the one they believe in. As you're researching, then, take the debater's approach to gathering information so you'll be very well-informed about the opposing views.

Debate tournament

At a debate tournament, you don't know what side of the argument you'll be assigned to, so you have to research both sides!

Understand the Other Point of View

When you encounter these dissenting opinions, get curious. Try to figure out why smart and rational people would hold those positions. What evidence do they look at? How do they interpret that evidence? What life experiences might lead them to disagree with your point of view?

For example, a person who has grown up hunting in a community that has never experienced gun violence might have a very different perspective on gun control than someone whose child was the victim of a shooting. During the research phase, you'll want to have a respectful vision of both these people in your mind to build an argument that might help increase the understanding of where the other is coming from.

Then, when you begin structuring your argument, imagine how your skeptical reader might react to your thesis statement and each of your claims. Imagine that this reader is smart, informed, has thought carefully about the issue, and has reached a totally different conclusion. Try to persuade this reader; work hard to demonstrate why your position is more convincing than the alternatives.

For example, to begin discussing the legalization of physician aid-in-dying with an audience that may be initially averse to the idea, you might begin with something like this: "The impending death of a loved one, particularly a person who can no longer communicate for herself, can pose intense ethical and emotional questions for those designated to make medical decisions for the patient. Hastening death can seem antithetical to the goals of medicine, and the artificial extension of life through invasive and/or risky medical procedures often does not provide an easier alternative. So, how might one go about making such fundamental decisions?"

Prove Your Point

Introducing opposing viewpoints is necessary, but do not stop there. The burden of proof is on you, as the author of the argument. If you fail to neutralize a common objection, readers will have an excuse to reject your argument. Just as you built your own argument, to refute opposing views, you'll need to include evidence from research studies, statistics, and quoted opinions from experts.  

The strongest arguments are those which carefully consider all perspectives in an attempt to find the most reasonable view of the issue. Your readers will deeply appreciate your efforts because they show respect for both the seriousness of your mission and for the readers themselves. Enjoy the process!

Rugby

Anticipating your opponents' objections can help you structure your arguments more soundly.

2.6.2: Techniques for Acknowledging Opposing Views

You can boost your credibility by acknowledging specific sources who disagree with your position, then effectively refuting their arguments.

Learning Objective

Modify language to be neutral in tone when presenting a counterargument

Key Points

If the opposing view that you are considering and counteracting comes from another author, be sure to introduce the author and the point of view in a neutral way.

Neutral language is not emotionally charged, biased, or polemical. Use neutral language when you present opposing viewpoints.

Examples of neutral words are "contends," "argues," "suggests," "admits," "claims," and "believes."

You can introduce counterarguments with direct quotations from an opposing expert by paraphrasing, by offering a rhetorical example, or by offering a conditional statement.

Satire can be used in less formal essays to inject humor and relax the reader's defenses.

Using straw-man counterarguments and weakened oppositional statements, while somewhat tempting, will not serve to strengthen your own argument but will severely weaken it by causing the reader to lose respect for it.

Key Terms

straw man

An insubstantial concept, idea, endeavor, or argument, particularly one deliberately set up to be weakly supported, so that it can be easily knocked down; especially to impugn the strength of any related thing or idea.

concession

A literary device in which one acknowledges the merits of an opposing argument.

neutral

Favoring neither the supporting nor the opposing viewpoint of a topic of debate; unbiased.

credibility

Reputation impacting one's ability to be believed.

opposition

An opposite or contrasting position.

Making a strong argument includes answering any of the potential objections that may form in a reader's mind. Your job during the research phase is to find counterarguments and material to refute them, and in the drafting phase to construct your argument in a way that incorporates these objections and counterarguments. We'll examine both phases here.

Finding Credible Sources for Counterarguments

You can boost your credibility by acknowledging specific sources who disagree with your position. If you summarize opposing views without attaching them to actual writers, it may appear as though you haven't done your research. However, if you cite counterarguments from experts in the field, and then work to refute those arguments effectively, you can lend authority to your own argument.

As you're researching, spend some time putting in search terms as if you were arguing for the opposition. If you consistently come from your side of the issue, you may miss articles by some of the stronger opponents. For example, if you're arguing for hate-crime legislation and your search terms use only language related to that, you may find counterarguments based on free speech, but you may exclude those that oppose legislation on religious grounds. Beginning your search can be as simple as putting the question into a search engine: "Why would anyone oppose hate-crime legislation?"  

Of course, you don't want to stop there. Just as with your own argument, you'll want to find the best thinkers on the opposing side of the argument. Follow the path of each objection to discover its roots. Gather quotes summarizing their viewpoints and then go digging to find statistics and other research that both back and counter their claims.

If your mind is changed in the process, so be it! You can change your thesis and claims and argue for the other side of the issue. Either way, you'll be gathering the best information from both sides of the argument to present to your audience.

Presenting Counterarguments in Your Paper

There are several ways to introduce to your reader the counterarguments you've uncovered: quoting a source for the counterargument, paraphrasing a source, or using your own words to offer a rhetorical example or conditional statement. Whichever way you choose to bring the counterargument into the discussion, however, you'll want to use neutral language.

Using Neutral Language

Make it clear that you are presenting someone else's viewpoint, but don't use emotionally charged, biased, or polemical language to summarize it. Don't dismiss your opposition from the outset with language like this: "John Smith naively argues ..." Instead, you could say, "John Smith contends," and then summarize John Smith's view. You can go on to explain exactly why Smith's opinion is naive—but make sure you give it a fair shot first. Here are some examples of neutral verbs you can use to introduce another author's opposing view: "contends," "argues," "suggests," "admits," "claims," "believes."

There are many valid ways to introduce an opposing view, but do try to present it in a neutral manner before you shoot it down. The more your readers believe that you are being fair to your opponents, the more likely they are to be open to your refutation.

Quotations

You can quote an expert in the field who has publicly objected to the your thesis.  Or you can quote a politician or another public figure who has recently brought up the issue (keeping in mind that this latter option dates your paper), as long as you do it respectfully. For example:

"Raymond Rodriguez, arguing in 'The Social Contract' (Summer, 1992) for closing the Mexican border to immigration, suggests that 'Regulating immigration is as important as enacting agreements to control trade and pollution of the environment—and for many of the same reasons. The violation of a nation's territorial integrity, its safety and well-being, cannot be tolerated.' Let's look at each of these concerns in turn."

You'll notice first that the author has an Hispanic surname, which lends ethos to his perspective. You'll also notice that the publication and date is included, so a reader can quickly and easily find the original source material. A reader might want to verify what you quote here and also see if you've manipulated the context in any way. (A reader might be wondering, "Did he really just compare immigrants to pollution?) You've presented his words respectfully, however, allowing them to speak for themselves. And the last sentence tells the reader you will deal with each of the concerns—violation of territorial integrity, safety, and well-being—in your refutation.

An advantage of using quotations is that you are allowing the opposition to speak for itself. Your reader can't scoff that you're offering an inaccurate summary of the argument, because you are using the opposing expert's words.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is a similar approach but allows you to contextualize the comment. You will want to resist the temptation to skew the comment's meaning or to editorialize!

"Jones contends that Theseus serves as a counterpoint to Oberon and Titania, acting as a just and righteous monarch instead of falling sway to whims and personal desires."

The author of this paper has already introduced the referenced expert and is here introducing a new portion of Jones's counterargument. It's presented reasonably and respectfully.

"Of course, there is a point to be made that nuclear energy creates less pollution than using coal or oil."

This is called a concession. You are conceding that the opposing argument is not completely false. Of course, you will go on to explain why this counterargument is not conclusive, but as you introduce it, you show that you understand the logical and rational basis for the argument.

Using a Rhetorical Example or Conditional Statement

Another way to present a counterargument is to introduce it in your own words in the form of an example. In doing this, you're acting as a proxy for your readers, voicing their potential objections, hopefully at just the moment those objections arise in their minds.

"All this talk about tolerance and the possibility of rehabilitation is nice in theory, but what if it was your own parent or child who was killed? Wouldn't the meaning of a just society depend, then, on the court acting on your behalf?"

In this example, the writer is putting himself in his reader's place, voicing one of the most common and understandable objections to his thesis. He has placed this objection just after his claim that all people should be given the opportunity for redemption, because he knows that that's the claim that is most likely to ignite this counterargument in the reader's mind. It's a rhetorical example (someone killing a loved one) in the form of a series of questions.

A conditional statement (if x, then y) gives the reader's objections a voice in the context of the writer's argument

"If all people suddenly became vegan in order to save the planet, would that create an overpopulation of livestock that would then do even more damage to the planet?"

Here, the writer approaches concession by acknowledging that it makes sense to at least consider this counterargument. If this is true, then that may be true.  

While all of the above examples use a serious and respectful tone to introduce counterarguments, there is another option that can be effective, depending on your audience and your intentions.

Using Satire as a Refutation Strategy

Satire is a humorous tone that can be deployed in summarizing a position in order to not only draw out its shortcomings, but also to correct or change the shortcomings of the position. It is less likely to be used in academic writing.

For example, in a popular (as opposed to academic or professional) essay advocating for strictly enforced leash laws in cities, you might write something like this: 

"While it may seem like an act of pet-friendly beneficence and trust to allow your mutt to roam free in the streets, exercising his right to sniff and bite whomever he pleases, unrestrained animals in public places ultimately pose a potential threat to the safety of pedestrians."

Well-done satire can make the reader smile, perhaps even if he or she is one of the pet-friendly owners referenced in the paragraph. It's good for us to laugh at ourselves, and when we do so, we can relax our defenses and open up to the opposing argument.  

The trick is to use this technique without alienating readers, and that is not an easy balance. If your reader feels mocked, you've lost him. And even if your reader agrees with your thesis, she may be turned off completely by the lack of respect for other readers.

You can poke fun and be respectful at the same time. You'll just need to use this technique with caution and care.

The Temptation to Weaken the Opposing Argument

You may be tempted to weaken an objection to your argument by turning it into a straw man, or a flimsy version of the original point. A straw-man argument can make a point overly simplistic, describe an incomplete concept or take a point out of context. You may have heard talk-radio hosts and opinion columnists employ this strategy. This tactic, however, results in the unfair labeling of others' arguments as uninformed, feeble, or otherwise unworthy of a considerate response. In truth, the straw man is a well-known tactic, and readers can detect it quite easily. If you shortchange the opposing viewpoint, your readers will suspect that you are trying to compensate for shortcomings in your own argument.

Your argument will be much stronger if you present opposing viewpoints in a sympathetic light. Compare the following examples:

"Students claim that they cheat on tests because they are too busy to study. In reality, students can find the time to study if they learn time-management skills."

"Students face many time constraints: between work and family obligations, social responsibilities, sports, clubs, and the expectations of professors, who all think their class should be the top priority, students can have trouble finding time to study for all of their tests. Some students admit that they see cheating as the only way to reconcile their conflicting obligations. However, students can find the time to study if they work on their time-management skills."

The second example presents the argument more sympathetically and realistically. It acknowledges that students may face legitimate difficulties as they try to find time to study for all of their classes. Clearly, in the second example, the writer has considered this issue from the students' perspective, and has attempted to find a solution that takes their concerns into account.

You'll want to present counterarguments to your thesis in ways that respect those who disagree. That includes researching to find the thought leaders on the opposing side of your topic, presenting their arguments in an honest light, and then moving into respectful refutation.

2.6.3: Refuting Your Opposition

After you present the likely objections to your argument, you can show your readers why they should be willing to take your side.

Learning Objective

Outline the process for refuting an argument

Key Points

Consider and counter opposing viewpoints in order to strengthen your own argument.

Counter these objections by showing your reader that your position is more reasonable than the opposing position.

It is important to clearly, completely, and respectfully state the opposing view.

There are various ways to refute counterarguments in your paper, and selecting one will depend on your topic, your audience, and space/time limitations.

In each refutation paragraph, you'll want to state your opponent's argument, clearly state your objection to that argument, support your objection with evidence and supportive statements, and then conclude with a comparison of the ideas.

During the revision process, you'll need to look for redundancy of information in claim and refutation paragraphs and check the structure for flow.

Key Term

viewpoint

The position from which something is observed or considered; an angle, outlook, or point of view.

Now that you've built a strong foundation of credibility by presenting the likely objections and reasoned opposition to your argument (respectfully, of course!), you can show your readers the flaws in these counterarguments. Remember, skeptical readers need to be convinced that your position is more reasonable than their own, and so your refutation will need to be both accurate and thorough. In the process, you'll win support from both sides of the argument for your reasonable approach.

Where to Address Counterarguments

Depending on your writing style and material, your argument could follow various structural formats:

Present your own argument first, and then present and counteract the opposing viewpoints.  

This structure has the advantage of putting your argument in people's minds first, so it can be useful when you are space-limited or your audience is time-limited.

Present the opposition's views first, and then prove that your argument is more reasonable than the opposing views.

This strategy gets objections out in the open right away, which can be especially useful for radical or unexpected thesis statements. The approach here is, "I know what you're thinking, but hang in there, and you'll see where I'm coming from."

Alternate back and forth between your argument and opposing points.

Here, you acknowledge each objection as it's likely to arise in the reader's mind. You are anticipating what each claim might bring up for the reader and handling it immediately, so he or she has no opportunity to get hung up on the objection.

Structuring Your Refutation

There are four basic parts to a refutation of an opposing argument: you introduce the counterargument, state your objection to it, offer evidence to support your view, and draw a clear conclusion by comparing the viewpoints head to head.

Introduction 

“The opposition says …”

Present the view accurately and fairly, and possibly concede that there is reason or merit to this perspective. For example: "Opponents of the Animal Welfare Act claimed that the use of animal subjects in drug testing was absolutely necessary to save human lives."

Objection

“However …”

Here, you state your objection to the view—the reason the reader should not accept the opposition's viewpoint. It may be in the form of a question or statement. For example: "Is it accurate, however, to say that intelligent people are not susceptible to brainwashing?" Notice the use of the word "accurate." While the counterargument might make some rational sense, have research and experience validated the assumption? You could phrase it as a statement, as opposed to a question. How are they different? Would the statement be more direct?

Support for Objection 

“Because …”

Support your objection with high-quality evidence, expert opinion, and solid reasoning: "The Bureau of Justice Statistics found that in 2005, punitive damages were awarded to only 5 percent of plaintiffs in civil trials." Here, the writer uses both a widely respected source and statistics that refute the counterclaim. Colorful language, appeals to emotion, and rhetorical devices hold little weight against a clearly fleshed-out position supported by appropriate examples and solid evidence offered by reputable sources.

Conclusion 

“Therefore …”

In this fourth step, the conflict must be resolved. You've introduced two valid viewpoints. Why is yours the stronger one? "While job creation programs may indeed increase the nation's short-term financial burden, the strategy of putting people back to work has consistently been proven to create a stronger economic and social fabric in the long run." Concluding statements are not simply restatements of the claim but actual comparisons of the two approaches with a conclusion as to why one argument is superior.

Revising Counterarguments and Refutations

In the revision stage, you'll want to look at the balance of the paper. Rather than addressing every possible objection to your thesis, you may decide at this point to eliminate the lesser objections, so as not to overload the paper with counterarguments.  

You'll also need to look for redundancy. Make sure your claims and your refutations are not repetitive. If you have a refutation that simply repeats one of your claims, see if you can find a different way to refute the opposing argument. Your reader will lose interest the minute you get repetitive.

Finally, ensure that if your introduction and conclusion include counterargument scenarios (images, quotes, stories), they're consistent with what you've found in the research. 

Objection!

To be an ace arguer, you'll need to clearly state your objections to your opponent's arguments and support your objections with evidence.

Attributions

The Importance of Addressing Opposing Views

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Meta-discussion." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-discussion. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"argument." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/argument. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Assembling Your Argument." https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/paper-execution-2/planning-your-argument-10/assembling-your-argument-48-8497/. Boundless License: Other.

"Anticipating Potential Objections." https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/summarizing-18/anticipating-potential-objections-86-534/. Boundless License: Other.

"counterargument." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/counterargument. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Argument." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Argument%23Dealing_With_the_Opposition. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Student_Union_Debate.jpg." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Student_Union_Debate.jpg. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rugby-Pioneers: 3 Rugby trade cards." http://rugby-pioneers.blogs.com/rugby/3_rugby_trade_cards/. blogs.com CC BY-SA.

Techniques for Acknowledging Opposing Views

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"credibility." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/credibility. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"neutral." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/neutral. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"opposition." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/opposition. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Representing Objections Fairly." https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-3-boundless-presentation-620/responding-to-objections-624/representing-objections-fairly-629-942/. Boundless License: Other.

"Using Satire to Summarize." https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/summarizing-18/using-satire-to-summarize-88-1172/. Boundless License: Other.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Argument." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Argument%23Dealing_With_the_Opposition. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

Refuting Your Opposition

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Analyzing Assignments." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Analyzing_Assignments%23Summary.2FResponse_Paper. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"viewpoint." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/viewpoint. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Addressing Opposing Viewpoints." https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-3-boundless-presentation-620/responding-to-objections-624/addressing-opposing-viewpoints-632-70/. Boundless License: Other.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Argument." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Argument. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Punitive Damage Awards in State Courts, 2005." http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/pdasc05.pdf. U.S. Department of Justice License: Other.

"Objection.jpg." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace_Attorney%23/media/File:WonderCon_2015_-_Phoenix_Wright_(17049616945).jpg. "WonderCon 2015 - Phoenix Wright (17049616945)" by William Tung from USA - WonderCon 2015 - Phoenix Wright [2]. Licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WonderCon_2015_-_Phoenix_Wright_(17049616945).jpg#/media/File:WonderCon_2015_-_Phoenix_Wright_(17049616945).jpg CC BY-SA 2.0.

3: The Research Process

3.1: Understanding the Academic Context of Your Topic

3.1.1: Understanding the Academic Context of Your Topic

Good arguments convince a reader to reconsider previously accepted knowledge or opinions about a topic, also known as the status quo.

Learning Objective

Explain the importance of including a discussion of the status quo in a paper

Key Points

In writing, "status quo" refers to how earlier scholars have approached an issue.

In the earlier part of a paper, the writer must explain to the reader the status quo about a subject in order for the reader to understand the stakes of changing the argument.

The status quo is also common ground between a writer and a reader.

Key Term

status quo

A Latin term meaning the current or existing state of affairs; literally, "the state in which."

What Is the Status Quo?

"Status quo" refers to the existing and accepted body of academic research and discourse on a given topic. Conducting the appropriate research on this discourse is an important preliminary step to academic essay writing. Academic papers rely on the status quo to inform and support the writer's argument. One of the main principles of academic writing is active and creative interpretation of research and arguments that have come before. 

Finding the Status Quo

Within the context of academic writing, "status quo" refers primarily to scholarly findings — that is, what other academic experts have published around a particular subject. Prior to writing an academic paper, the writer must investigate and study scholars' arguments thoroughly and critically. This helps the writer understand how scholars' arguments fit into the wider context of the paper, and it applies even in cases where the majority of research will be used for knowledge rather than citation purposes.

Examining the status quo

Before you begin writing on any topic, it is important to understand the dominant conversation, or the status quo, associated with the topic. Examining the status quo is a good way of figuring out where to situate your specific insight on a topic.

As the writer continues her research, she will eventually find sources to incorporate into the paper. During the writing process, it can be helpful to form questions focused on a specific work or idea to help set up the paper's hypothesis. Because the status quo is crucial to the writer's argument, it is usually included in the paper's introduction.

Why Does the Status Quo Matter?

Identifying the status quo in the introduction serves several purposes. First, it helps readers immediately understand the context of the argument. When readers are informed about the sources used to support the argument, they can gain a better understanding of it. Second, identifying the status quo also tells readers why the writer's angle is unique compared to past research.

Accurately summarizing the status quo also demonstrates that the writer has enough knowledge and expertise within the field to confidently make an argument. Audiences have a difficult time trusting a writer who fails to describe or prove that he or she is familiar with the status quo.

Contributing to the Status Quo

The status quo is not fixed and is constantly evolving and growing because new writing adds to and changes it. Whenever a writer puts forth a new argument, draws a new conclusion, or makes new connections, the status quo changes, even if only slightly. As a researcher and writer, you also have the potential to change the status quo through your research and argument. 

Attributions

Understanding the Academic Context of Your Topic

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"The Cain Project in Engineering and Professional Communication, Three Modules on Clear Writing Style: An Introduction to The Craft of Argument, by Joseph M. Williams and Gregory Colomb. September 17, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m17223/latest/?collection=col10551/latest. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.

"status quo." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/status_quo. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Boys trained in the fundamentals of navigation may become technicians in the armed service, Los Angeles, Calif. Thomas Graham, a member of the Victory Corps at Polytechnic High School, is learning to use a sextant to determine longitude and latitude (LOC | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/library_of_congress/2179076051/lightbox/. Flickr Public domain.

3.2: Organizing Your Research Plan

3.2.1: Organizing Your Research Plan

To save time and effort, decide on a research plan before you begin.

Learning Objective

Outline the steps of the research process

Key Points

Your research plan will specify the kinds of sources you want to gather. These may include scholarly publications, journal articles, primary sources, textbooks, encyclopedias, and more. Most search engines will let you filter search results by type of source.

You can limit your sources by date and time period when planning your research. You can use search engines to find only articles written within a specific time frame to ensure your findings are relevant. You can apply filters such as "written in the past 10 years" to narrow your search results.

Key Term

research

Pursuit of information, such as facts, principles, theories, applications, etc.

A research paper is an expanded essay that relies on existing discourse to analyze a perspective or construct an argument. Because a research paper includes an extensive information-gathering process in addition to the writing process, it is important to develop a research plan to ensure your final paper will accomplish its goals. As a researcher, you have countless resources at your disposal, and it can be difficult to sift through each source while looking for specific information. If you begin researching without a plan, you could find yourself wasting hours reading sources that will be of little or no help to your paper. To save time and effort, decide on a research plan before you begin.

Books, books, books ...

Do not start research haphazardly—come up with a plan first.

Creating a Research Plan

A research plan should begin after you can clearly identify the focus of your argument. Narrow the scope of your argument by identifying the specific subtopic you will research. A broad search will yield thousands of sources, which makes it very difficult to form a focused, coherent argument. It is simply not possible to include every topic in your research. If you narrow your focus, however, you can find targeted resources that can be synthesized into a new argument. 

After narrowing your focus, think about key search terms that will apply only to your subtopic. Develop specific questions that can be answered through your research process, but be careful not to choose a focus that is overly narrow. You should aim for a question that will limit search results to sources that relate to your topic, but will still result in a varied pool of sources to explore.

If you are studying the Battle of Gettysburg, for example, you might decide to look into any number of topics related to the battle: medical practices on the field, social differences between soldiers, or military maneuvers. If your topic is medical practices in battle, an search for "Battle of Gettysburg" would return far too many general results. You would also not want to search for a single instance of surgery, because you might not be able to find enough information on it. Find a happy medium between very broad and too specific.

Another part of your research plan should include the type of sources you want to gather. The possibilities include articles, scholarly journals, primary sources, textbooks, encyclopedias, and more. Most search engines will let you limit search results by type of source. If you know that you are only looking for articles, you can exclude things like interviews or abstracts from your search. If you are looking for specific kinds of data, like images or graphs, you might want to find a database dedicated to that sort of source.

You can also limit the time period from which you will draw resources. Do you only want articles written in the past ten or twenty years? Do you want them from a specific span of time? Again, most search engines will allow you to limit results to anything written within the years you specify, and the choice to limit the time period will depend on your topic. Determining these factors will help you form a specific research plan to guide your process.

Example of a Research Process

A good research process should go through these steps:

Decide on the topic. 

Narrow the topic in order to narrow search parameters. 

Create a question that your research will address.

Generate sub-questions from your main question. 

Determine what kind of sources are best for your argument. 

Create a bibliography as you gather and reference sources.

For example, in step one, you might decide that your topic will be 19th-century literature. Then in step two you may narrow it down to 19th-century British science fiction, and then narrow it down even further to Mary Shelley's Frankenstein.

Then, in step three, you would come up with a research question. A good research question for this example might be, "How does the novel's vision of generative life relate to the scientific theories of life that were developed in the 19th century?" Posing a historical question opens up research to more reference possibilities.

Next, in step four, you generate sub-questions from your main question. For instance, "During the 19th century, what were some of the competing theories about how life is created?," and "Did any of Mary Shelley's other works relate to the creation of life?" After you know what sub-questions you want to pursue, you'll be able to move to step five—determine what kind of sources are best for your argument. Our example would lead us to possibly look at newspapers or magazines printed in the late 18th or early 19th century. In addition, books or essays on the topic, both contemporary and older, could be sources. It is likely that someone has researched your topic before, and even possibly a question similar to yours. Books written since your time period on your specific topic could be a great source for further references. When you find a book that is written about your topic, check the bibliography for references that you can try to find yourself.

As you accumulate sources, make sure you create a bibliography, or a list of sources that you've used in your research and writing process. And finally, have fun doing the research!

Attributions

Organizing Your Research Plan

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"research." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/research. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Jennifer Stidham, FLIP It with Web 2.0 - Free Online Tools to Enhance the Student Research Process. September 17, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/col11175/latest/. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.

"Still Life with Plato | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/chefranden/2048731275/. Flickr CC BY.

3.3: Finding Your Sources

3.3.1: The Importance of Reliability

Using reliable sources in research papers strengthens your own voice and argument.

Learning Objective

Recognize sources that may be biased

Key Points

While researching for sources relevant to your topic, you need to critically read a source to identify possible political or other forms of bias, to consider the effects of historical context, and to discover possible bias on the part of the author.

The age of a source is another factor to consider, the importance of which will differ depending on the topic.

Consider the possible biases of the author.

Websites, unlike books, do not necessarily have publishers. Therefore, you should be attentive to who is behind the websites you find.

Key Terms

research

Diligent inquiry or examination to seek or revise facts, principles, theories, applications, et cetera; laborious or continued search after truth.

source

The person, place or thing from which something (information, goods, etc. ) comes or is acquired.

Example

If you're working on an essay about current developments in end-of-life care for terminally ill patients, an outdated source, such as a 1997 Detroit Free Press article about Jack Kevorkian, will likely not be relevant for your discussion, except as part of a historical overview of the politics of physician aid-in-dying. Nor would the Wikipedia entry for "euthanasia" be an appropriate place to look for information, since, while it can be useful for collecting colloquial information, Wikipedia is certainly not a scholarly source. Various religious or other non-medical interest-group sources could likely crop up in your search, but in those cases you'd need to take special care to identify potential biases and consider their impact on the information you find.

Using sources in research papers strengthens your own voice and argument, but to do so effectively you must understand your sources and vet their reliability. 

When researching, it is important to determine the position and the reliability of every source/author. This will ensure that your source is both credible and relevant, and that the source will enhance your paper rather than undermine it. The following are a few recommendations to approach sources in whatever form they take.

How Old Is the Source?

The guidelines for assessing the usability of print sources and digital sources (i.e., sources accessed through the Internet) are similar. One point to keep in mind for both digital and print sources is age: How old is the source? Examining the source's age helps you determine whether the information is relevant to your paper topic. Depending on your topic, different degrees of age will be appropriate. For example, if you are writing on 17th-century British poetry, it is not enough to simply find sources from the era, nor is adequate to reference only early 20th-century scholarly sources. Instead, it will be helpful to combine the older, primary sources with more recent, secondary scholarship. Doing so will make a convincing case for your particular argument. If you are researching public-health theories, however, your argument will depend on more modern scholarly sources. Older articles may include beliefs or facts that are outdated or have been proven wrong by more contemporary research. 

With digital sources, be wary of sites with old, outdated information. The point is to avoid presenting inaccurate or outdated information that will negatively impact your paper.

Author Biases

Author bias is another consideration in choosing a source. "Author bias" means that the author feels strongly about the topic one way or another, which prevents the author from taking a neutral approach to presenting findings. For print sources, you can assess bias by considering the publisher of the book. Books published by a university press undergo significant editing and review to increase their validity and accuracy. Be cautious about self-published books or books published by specific organizations like corporations or nonprofit groups. Unlike university presses, these sources may have different guidelines and could be putting out information that is intentionally misleading or uninformed. Similarly, periodicals like scholarly journals or magazines may also have bias. However, scholarly journals tend to be peer-reviewed and contain citations of sources, whereas a magazine article may contain information without providing any sources to substantiate purported claims.

While you want to support your argument with your research, you don't want to do so at the expense of accuracy or validity.

Online Resources

Websites, unlike books, do not necessarily have publishers. Instead, you should consider who is behind the websites you find. To avoid using information that comes from an unreliable source, stick to scholarly databases. While you can find some articles with general search engines, a search engine will only find non-scholarly articles. If you use broader Internet searches, look closely at domain names. Domain names can tell you who sponsors the site and the purpose of that sponsorship. Some examples include educational (.edu), commercial (.com), nonprofit (.org), military (.mil), or network (.net). 

Depending on your topic, you may want to avoid dot-com websites because their primary purpose tends to be commerce, which can significantly affect the content that they publish. Additionally, consider the purpose that the website serves. Is any contact information provided for the website's author? Does the website provide references to support the claims that it makes? If the answers to these types of questions are not readily available, it may be best to look in other places for a reliable source.

There are increasing numbers of non-scholarly sites that pertain to particular topics, but are not scholarly sources. Blogs, for example, may cater to a particular topic or niche, but they are typically created and managed by an individual or party with an interest in promoting the content of the blog. Some blog writers may have valid credentials, but because their writing is not peer-reviewed or held to an academic standard, sites such as these are typically unreliable sources. 

Remember, when researching, the goal is not only to gather sources, but to gather reliable resources. To do this, you should be able to not only track the claims contained within a source, but also consider the stakes that may be involved for the author making those claims. While personal motivation may not always be accessible in a document, in some cases there can be contextual clues, like the type of publisher or sponsor. These may lead you to decide that one source is more reliable than another.

Money and magnifying glass

When you evaluate scholarly sources, look out for potential conflicts of interest and hidden agendas. For example, the sources of funding for research are very important, as they may influence the writers' interpretation of results.

3.3.2: Scholarly Sources

In academic writing, the sources you use must be reliable; therefore, you should rely mainly on scholarly sources as the foundation for your research.

Learning Objective

List the different types of scholarly sources available to researchers

Key Points

Not all sources are equal. One way to find reputable scholarly sources is to avoid using general search engines such as Google or Wikipedia.

Use academic search databases like JStor, EBSCO, or Academic Search Premier.

Primary sources give the researcher a glimpse into the time period under review and provide opportunities for new analysis. 

In addition, do not hesitate to visit your library in order to ask your librarian about accessing these databases, and also in order to search for print materials.

Key Terms

secondary source

Any document that draws on one or more primary sources and interprets or analyses them; also, sources such as newspapers, whose accuracy is open to question.

primary source

A historical document that was created at or near the time of the events studied, by a known person, for a known purpose.

database

A collection of (usually) organized information in a regular structure, usually but not necessarily in a machine-readable format accessible by a computer.

Reliability

Research is the foundation of a strong argument, theory, or analysis. When constructing your research paper, it is important to include reliable sources in your research. Without reliable sources, readers may question the validity of your argument and your paper will not achieve its purpose.

Academic research papers are typically based on scholarly sources and primary sources. Scholarly sources include a range of documents, source types, and formats, but they share an important quality: credibility. More than any other source you are likely to encounter during your research, a scholarly source is most likely to be reliable and accurate. Primary sources are documents that were written or created during the time period under study. They include letters, newspaper articles, photographs, and other artifacts that come directly from a particular time period. 

Scholarly Sources

A scholarly source can be an article or book that was written by an expert in the academic field. Most are by professors or doctoral students for publication in peer-reviewed academic journals. Since the level of expertise and scrutiny is so high for these articles, they are considered to be among the best and most trustworthy sources. Most of these articles will list an author's credentials, such as relevant degrees, other publications, or employment at a university or research institution. If an article does not, try searching for the author online to see how much expertise he or she has in the field.

You may decide to use sources that are not scholarly articles, such as interviews or newspaper articles. These sources should also be written by an expert in the field and published by a reputable source. An investigative essay in the New Yorker would be fine; an investigative essay in the National Enquirer would not.

Other types of scholarly sources include non-print media such as videos, documentaries, and radio broadcasts. Other sources may include tangible items such as artifacts, art, or architecture. It's likely that you will find secondary sources that provide analysis of these sources, but you should also examine them to conduct your own analysis. 

Primary and Secondary Sources

A primary source is an original document. Primary sources can come in many different forms. In an English paper, a primary source might be the poem, play, or novel you are studying. In a history paper, it may be a historical document such as a letter, a journal, a map, the transcription of a news broadcast, or the original results of a study conducted during the time period under review. If you conduct your own field research, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments, your results would also be considered a primary source. Primary sources are valuable because they provide the researcher with the information closest to the time period or topic at hand. They also allow the writer to conduct an original analysis of the source and to draw new conclusions. 

Secondary sources, by contrast, are books and articles that analyze primary sources. They are valuable because they provide other scholars' perspectives on primary sources. You can also analyze them to see if you agree with their conclusions or not.

Most essays will use a combination of primary and secondary sources.

Where to Find Scholarly Sources

The first step in finding good resources is to look in the right place. If you want reliable sources, avoid general search engines. Sites like Google, Yahoo, and Wikipedia may be good for general searches, but if you want something you can cite in a scholarly paper, you need to find it from a scholarly database.

Popular scholarly databases include JStor, Project Muse, the MLA International Bibliography, Academic Search Premier, and ProQuest. These databases do charge a fee to view articles, but most universities will pay for students to view the articles free of charge. Ask a librarian at your college about the databases to which they offer access.

Most journals will allow you to access electronic copies of articles if you find them through a database. This will not always be the case, however. If an article is listed in a database but can't be downloaded to your computer, write down the citation anyway. Many libraries will have hard copies of journals, so if you know the author, date of publication, and page numbers, you can probably find a print edition of the source.

At the college or university level, you have another incredible resource at your fingertips: your college's librarians! For help locating resources, you will find that librarians are extremely knowledgeable and may help you uncover sources you would never have found on your own—maybe your school has a microfilm collection, an extensive genealogy database, or access to another library's catalog. You will not know unless you utilize the valuable skills available to you, so be sure to find out how to get in touch with a research librarian for support!

Examples of Scholarly Sources 

The exact combination or sources you use in your paper will depend on the discipline in which you are conducting research and the topic of your essay. Here are some examples of the types of sources you might include in a variety of academic fields.

Politics/Law: You could include text from the Constitution or a Supreme Court decision as a primary source, and you may include a scholarly article that discusses that decision as a secondary source. 

Science: You may include findings from a scientific research study as a primary source, and you may include an article from a medical journal as a secondary source.

Arts/humanities: You may include a piece of artwork or writing as a primary source, and you may include a scholar's critical analysis of that work as a secondary source.

History: You may include correspondence between historical figures as a primary source, and you may include information from a textbook as a secondary source.

These list of examples is meant to illustrate the range of approaches you may take when determining what sources to include in your paper, but it is not an exhaustive list of the possibilities available to you! The researcher's ability to draw connections between a variety of sources is part of the art of research-paper writing, so you must decide on the best combination of scholarly sources for your essay. 

Research

Looks like he's found a good print source—though it may be too old for us to use today.

3.3.3: Choosing Search Terms for Sources

Conducting searches related to the keywords or subheadings of your topic will help systematize your research.

Learning Objective

Identify useful search terms given a research topic

Key Points

In the course of your research, your initial keywords may reveal other avenues that could help further your research, especially in situations where the keywords are still vague.

You can search both online databases and actual library catalogs for sources. Catalogs and databases allow you to organize searches by subject headings and/or key terms.

The two options for narrowing your search are to use key terms or subject headings. Key terms are words that will appear frequently in the article. Subject headings are categories of articles grouped by theme.

Key Terms

library catalog

A register of all bibliographic items found in a library or group of libraries, such as a network of libraries at several locations.

database

A collection of (typically) organized information in a regular structure, usually but not necessarily in a machine-readable format accessible by a computer.

Example

If you're studying 19th-century theories of life, in the course of reading you might find "spontaneous generation," which was a popular 19th-century theory of how life was formed. This could help open new avenues for searching further sources. If the topic of your paper is 19th-century scientific theories of life and Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, some keywords that might be relevant for your search would include "science," "Frankenstein," and "life".

Before you start conducting your research, you should have created a research plan with a specific research question. In addition to this plan, you should begin your search with an objective in mind. What exactly are you looking for? Do you want facts, opinions, statistics, quotations? Is the purpose of your research to find a new idea, find factual information to support a position, or something else? Once you decide what you are looking for, it is much easier to look for sources in the correct places and with the correct words and phrases. 

Once you have your research topic and you know which databases you want to search for articles, you need to determine the best way to go about searching. For starters, you can't just type in a question like, "What were medical practices like during the Battle of Gettysburg?" Instead, you should search one of two ways. The first option is to use key terms, or words that will appear frequently in the article. The second is to use subject headings—categories of articles grouped by theme.

To search key terms, think about important words that will occur in sources you could use. Then, type one or two of those terms into the search bar. Most search engines will generate results based on how frequently those words appear in articles and their abstracts.

Let's use our topic from the previous section, medical practices at the Battle of Gettysburg, as an example. You might choose keywords like "amputation," "field medicine," and "Gettysburg." This should yield articles that discuss amputations on the field during the Battle of Gettysburg. You could also search something like "anesthesia" and "Civil War," which would lead you to articles about anesthetics during the war.

While searching with key terms, you may need to get creative. Some articles will use different language than you might expect, so try a variety of related terms to make sure you're getting back all the possible results.

A lot of options

Phrase your search terms as specifically as possible, so that you only find relevant sources.

Attributions

The Importance of Reliability

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"source." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/source. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"research." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/research. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Researching." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researching. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Money and Magnifying Glass | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/59937401@N07/5858011914/. Flickr CC BY 2.0.

Scholarly Sources

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"database." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/database. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"secondary source." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/secondary_source. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"primary source." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/primary_source. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Researching." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researching%23Finding_Scholarly_Sources. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

cehwiedel. http://www.cehwiedel.com/booklists/2006/01/Booklist.20060120.htm. CC BY-SA.

Choosing Search Terms for Sources

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"database." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/database. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"library catalog." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/library%20catalog. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Jennifer Stidham, FLIP It with Web 2.0 - Free Online Tools to Enhance the Student Research Process. September 17, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m33413/latest/?collection=col11175/latest. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.

"Public Domain Images home public." http://www.public-domain-image.com/cache/objects-public-domain-images-pictures/books-public-domain-images-pictures/books-writing-ms-dos-device-drivers-assembly-language_w725_h544.jpg. Public Domain Images Public domain.

3.4: Understanding Your Sources

3.4.1: Understanding Your Sources

When researching, read through your sources twice: once to understand the author's purpose and argument, and a second time to evaluate the argument.

Learning Objective

Outline the process for reading an academic source

Key Points

Typically, you will need to read sources twice to get a complete picture of what they say and how you can use them.

Your first reading should focus on understanding the source's argument. Start by looking for the topic and the thesis, then consider the author's stated purpose and the evidence he or she uses to support the argument. 

Your second reading should focus on whether you agree or disagree with the source, and whether you have any commentary that you would like to make about the author's argument.

Reading scientific articles requires a different strategy than reading a newspaper article or textbook: you should skim the text, compare the hypothesis to the conclusion, identify key terms and visual aids, and then read the article closely for content.

Take notes as you read to understand your sources and the questions they raise.

While reading critically, ask yourself questions to better understand the content, the author's position, and the value of the source. 

Key Terms

thesis

A statement supported by arguments.

audience

The readership of a book or other written publication.

purpose

An object to be reached; a target; an aim; a goal.

Reading Your Sources

Once you've found sources to help your research, you must read each source carefully. To develop a sufficient understanding of the source, you will typically need to read it twice before including it in your essay. The first time should be devoted to understanding the argument the source is making. The second reading should focus on how the argument is made. At this stage, you should also determine whether you agree or disagree with the argument that the source is making, and whether it would support the argument you will make in your paper.

The First Reading

Start by looking for the topic and the thesis. What is the author's stated purpose? What kind of evidence does he or she use to support the argument? What is the author saying? What is her purpose? The author could be trying to explain, inform, anger, persuade, amuse, motivate, sadden, ridicule, attack, or defend. Once you understand the argument and purpose, you can begin to evaluate the argument.

The Second Reading

This is the time to think about whether you agree or disagree with the source, and whether you have any commentary that you would like to make about the author's argument. During your second reading you should consider the writer's reputation and their intended audience. Determine whether you find the author credible or not. If you do, and if the author's purpose and argument support your own, you can begin incorporating the source into your own writing. If you find the author credible but disagree with his purpose, it can still be valuable to consider the source in your own writing so that you can anticipate and acknowledge counterarguments later in your essay. 

Finally, remember to pay attention to quotation marks as you read. It's important to note whether the author of a text is writing, or if they are quoting someone else. Quotation marks are a helpful tool that authors use to help readers in distinguishing their voice from those of others. By paying attention to quotations and other cited material, you may also gain leads on other sources and authors you can incorporate in your paper. 

Reading Scientific Articles

Do not read a scientific article as though you're reading a textbook. Unlike academic articles, science textbooks organize information in chronological order and highlight important terms, definitions, and conclusions with bold text and graphics. Academic articles require a more proactive reading strategy.

Follow these four steps for reading scientific articles:

1. Before you read the entire article, skim it quickly for an overview of its structure.

2. Return to the beginning for a selective reading. Read the abstract, which will summarize the article. Read the beginning and end of the introduction, which will present the main points and explain their importance. Skim the conclusion to see how the results correspond to the hypothesis. As you read, look for keywords that signal important information, such as the following: surprising, unexpected, in contrast with previous work, we hypothesize that, we propose, we introduce, we develop, the data suggest.

3. Skim the entire article for common keywords and also visual aids (such as diagrams and charts), which are good indicators of important information.

4. At this point, you can read the article closely, attempting to draw inferences beyond what it states explicitly. As you read, take notes in a separate notebook, or in a computer document.

Questions for Guided Reading

If you want to make sure you catch the most important features of the article, ask pointed questions while you read. The following questions are essential to a thorough summary of a scientific article:

What is the topic of the article?

How is the problem, question, or issue defined?

What is the purpose of the research? What question, problem, or issue did the article address in relation to the topic?

Are any assumptions unusual or questionable?

Why is the question, problem, or issue important? What situation exists that motivated the research?

What experimental design is used? What methods are used?

What are the results? How were they interpreted? What did the researcher conclude?

Why is the article valuable or noteworthy? Does it answer a previously unanswered question, or contradict earlier research? Does it introduces a new method or technique? Does it test an old conclusion in a new way? Does it prove an old assumption false?

Taking Notes

No matter what you are reading, the following strategies are effective:

Highlight important passages.

Draw lines between the highlighted parts and briefly describe their connection.

Map the relationships between key concepts.

Make a list of keywords.

Look for words that signal an important piece of information.

Look for familiar concepts applied to new populations or situations.

Try to find evidence that might contradict something that was established in your class.

Think about it ...

Once you have scanned a source to know what it is about, reread it while thinking critically about its argument.

Attributions

Understanding Your Sources

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"thesis." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thesis. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"purpose." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/purpose. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"audience." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/audience. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Rhetorical Analysis." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Rhetorical_Analysis. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"All sizes | Bearded Philosopher | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/ian-w-scott/4870567608/sizes/l/in/photostream/. Flickr CC BY-SA.

3.5: Using Your Sources

3.5.1: Taking Useful Notes on Your Sources

Taking organized notes on your sources as you do research will be helpful when you begin writing.

Learning Objective

Describe useful note-taking strategies

Key Points

Notes should not only include bibliographic information, but also relevant arguments, quotes, and page numbers.

Systematizing your note-taking while doing research will reduce the need to aimlessly search through all your sources when you transition into writing. Taking notes now, even though it may feel frustrating, is in your best interest in the long run.

Use the full citation as your heading for each segment of notes you take. That way, you can be sure to have the citation ready when you start writing your paper.

Key Term

citation

A paraphrase of a passage from a book, or from another person, for the purposes of a scholarly paper.

Example

Consider the following source: Aldiss, Brian W. "On the Origin of Species: Mary Shelley." Speculations on Speculation: Theories of Science Fiction. Eds. James Gunn and Matthew Candelaria. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow, 2005. Notes for this source might look like this: "Aldiss discusses the relationship between Erasmus Darwin, Charles Darwin's grandfather, and the text of Frankenstein. See especially page five where Aldiss points out that the introduction includes references to galvanism and electricity."

Why Take Notes While Researching?

While most of your research will take place before you begin writing, you will still refer to your resources throughout the writing process. This will be much easier if you take thorough notes while reading through your sources during the initial research phase.

The goal of note-taking is to keep a record of whatever information you might want to use later. Your notes should be as thorough as they need to be, but not too long that they are no longer useful to you. If you summarize information, make sure you include whatever you might want to incorporate in your paper. If you think a quote will be useful, write it down in full. Avoid copying whole paragraphs or pages, though; instead, decide exactly what is useful to you on that page and write only that down. You want to be able to look through your notes later on and easily see what information you found useful. 

Organizing Your Notes

Organizing your notes is just as important as taking quality notes. You will need to track exactly which source each note came from so that you can properly cite your sources throughout your writing. Thus, the first thing you should do when taking notes is to write down the full citation for the source on which you are taking notes. This will help you find the source later on if you need to, and will ensure that you still have the complete citation even if you lose the source or have to return it to the library. Organizing notes by source also ensures that you will never lose track of how you need to cite them in your paper, so beginning with citation information provides a useful heading.

In addition to labeling each source, always be sure to write down the page numbers where you found whatever information you've written down. You will need to know the page number when you cite that information in your paper.

There are several methods for organizing your notes while researching, such as the following:

Index cards: You may want to create an index card or set of cards for each source you use. You can then store the cards in order and can easily sort through them to find the notes you need. 

Online sources such as Microsoft OneNote: OneNote is a digital notebook that allows you to create new pages, tabs, and notebooks for your notes. You can quickly navigate between pages, and you will have the advantage of already having important quotations and citation information in typed form. This makes it easy to incorporate notes into your paper during the writing process.

Organize by subtopic: Some sources may provide information on several subtopics that relate to your argument. You can choose to organize your notes for each source by subtopic so that when you get to that topic in your essay, you can easily find the notes on it. You can do this by creating headings or subheadings within your notes.

Taking notes

Some people use index cards to organize their notes while researching.

3.5.2: Maintaining an Annotated Bibliography

An annotated bibliography is a list of all your sources, including full citation information and notes on how you will use the sources.

Learning Objective

List the elements of an annotated bibliography

Key Points

If you keep an annotated bibliography while you research, it will function as a useful guide. It will be easier for you to revisit sources later because you will already have notes explaining how you want to use them.

If you find an annotated bibliography attached to one of the sources you are using, you can look at it to find other possible resources.

It is important that you use the proper format when citing sources. Consult the style manual for whichever format your professor asks that you use.

When you make notes on your sources, include a summary of the source, an evaluation of its reliability and potential bias, and a reflection on how the source could be used in the essay. 

Key Terms

bibliography

A list of books or documents relevant to a particular subject or author.

annotation

A note that is made while reading any form of text that may be as simple as underlining or highlighting passages.

citation

A paraphrase of a passage from a book, or from another person, for the purposes of a scholarly paper.

The Purpose of the Annotated Bibliography

An annotated bibliography is a list of all the sources you have researched, including both their full bibliographic citations and some notes on how you might want to use each resource in your work.

Annotated bibliographies are useful for several reasons. If you keep one while you research, the annotated bibliography will function as a useful guide. It will be easier for you to revisit sources later because you will already have notes explaining how you want to use each source. If you find an annotated bibliography attached to one of the sources you are using, you can look at it to find other possible resources.

Understand your notes

Annotated bibliographies include notes that explain what you found useful in each source, making it easier for you to refer back to appropriate sources later.

Constructing Your Citations

The first part of each entry in an annotated bibliography is the source's full citation. A description of common citation practices can be found in the section entitled "Citing Sources Fully, Accurately, and Appropriately," and detailed instructions can be found in the style manual for whatever format your professor wants you to use.

What to Include in Each Annotation

A good annotation has three parts, in addition to the complete bibliographic information for the source:

a brief summary of the source

a critique and evaluation of credibility, and

an explanation of how you will use the source in your essay

Start by stating the main idea of the source. If you have space, note the specific information that you want to use from the source, such as quotations, chapters, or page numbers. Then explain if the source is credible, and note any potential bias you observe. Finally, explain how that information is useful to your own work. 

You may also consider including:should also include some or all of the following:

An explanation about the authority and/or qualifications of the author

The scope or main purpose of the work

Any detectable bias or interpretive stance

The intended audience and level of reading

Example Annotation

Source: Farley, John. "The Spontaneous-Generation Controversy (1700–1860): The Origin of Parasitic Worms." Journal of the History of Biology, 5 (Spring 1972), 95–125.

Notes: This essay discusses the conversation about spontaneous generation that was taking place around the time that Frankenstein was written. In addition, it introduces a distinction between abiogenesis and heterogenesis. The author argues that the accounts of spontaneous generation from this time period were often based on incorrect assumptions: that the discussion was focused primarily on micro-organisms, and that spontaneous-generation theories were disproved by experiments. The author takes a scientific approach to evaluating theories of spontaneous generation, and the presentation of his argument is supported with sources. It is a reliable and credible source. The essay will be helpful in forming a picture of the early 19th-century conversation about how life is formed, as well as explaining the critical perception of spontaneous-generation theories during the 19th century. 

3.5.3: Writing While You Research

Once you have enough notes, you should start writing, even if you intend to keep researching.

Learning Objective

Explain the use of beginning to write your paper during the research process

Key Points

As you research, let yourself do some preliminary writing. Provide yourself with a space to think through ideas and consider how your ideas are related to each other. This can be a very helpful practice as you move into the writing phase.

Writing as you read is a way to avoid getting bogged down in researching, which can feel endless as you try to determine what is and is not a relevant source. By causing you to think through your research materials, preliminary writing is a good way to build the specifics of your argument.

Take notes as you read your sources, since relying on memory will lead to losing information. Similarly, start coming up with the organizational structure and argument of your paper as you gather research.

Key Terms

drafting

The preliminary stage of a writing project in which the author begins to develop a more cohesive product.

note

A mark, or sign, made to call attention to something.

idea

The conception of someone or something as representing a perfect example; an ideal.

We often think of the writing process as a series of discrete steps. We first research, then take notes, then outline, then write. However, in practice, the different phases of writing a paper often overlap. As you research, you begin taking notes. As you take notes, you begin to see how you want to put your argument together and may even start developing an in-depth analysis of some of your sources. Even if you are not officially at the drafting stage of your paper, that's okay. The research you do will often provide you with insights that you'll want to include in your argument.

If you have an idea for your essay while taking notes, don't wait to write it down—start developing it! While the idea is still fresh and clear, take a break from research and start working on your paper's structure or argument. Writing about issues you discover in your research that you find interesting will take the tedium out of researching and outlining and will help you better understand the format your essay will take.

Once you have enough notes, you should start writing, even if you intend to keep researching. It can be tempting to get bogged down in the research process and avoid moving on to actually writing a first draft. Avoid this impulse by starting to write while still researching. At this early stage, it will still be easy to include new research as you find it.

You may only be able to write one section at a time, or you may start writing a section and realize that you need more support from your sources. Beginning to construct your paper during the research process helps you identify holes in your argument, weaknesses in your evidence or support, and may reveal a need to change the structure or format of your essay. It is often easier to address these issues in an ongoing manner than it is to wait until the end of either the research or writing process. 

Active research

Don't just read passively—take notes throughout the research process.

3.5.4: Incorporating Your Sources Into Your Paper

There are several ways to properly incorporate and give credit to the sources you cite within your paper.

Learning Objective

Name the ways of incorporating outside sources into your paper

Key Points

There are three methods for referencing a source in the text of your paper: quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing.

Direct quotations are words and phrases that are taken directly from another source, and then used word-for-word in your paper.

A summary is typically a short description that outlines the most important points and general position of the source.

A paraphrase is when you put another source or part of a source (such as a chapter, paragraph, or page) into your own words.

You should follow quotes with a description, in your own terms, of what the quote says and why it is relevant to the purpose of your paper. 

Follow the style guide you are using to properly format and cite your quotations and borrowed information.

Key Terms

quotation

A fragment of a human expression that is being referred to by somebody else.

paraphrase

A rewording of something written or spoken by someone else.

summary

A short description that outlines the most important points and general position of the source.

How to Use Your Sources in Your Paper

Within the pages of your paper, it is important to properly reference and cite your sources to avoid plagiarism and to give credit for original ideas. Depending on which style guide you are using (e.g., APA, MLA), you will follow different methods to format your text to refer to others' work.

There are three methods for referencing a source in the text of your paper: quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing.

Quoting

Direct quotations are words and phrases that are taken directly from another source, and then used word-for-word in your paper. If you incorporate a direct quotation from another author's text, you must put that quotation or phrase in quotation marks to indicate that it is not your language. When writing direct quotations, you can use the source author's name in the same sentence as the quotation to introduce the quoted text and to indicate the source in which you found the text. You should then include the page number or other relevant information in parentheses at the end of the phrase (the exact format will depend on the formatting style of your essay).

Summarizing

Summarizing involves distilling the main idea of a source into a much shorter overview. A summary outlines a source's most important points and general position. When summarizing a source, it is still necessary to use a citation to give credit to the original author. You must reference the author or source in the appropriate parenthetical citation at the end of the summary. 

Paraphrasing

When paraphrasing, you may put any part of a source (such as a phrase, sentence, paragraph, or chapter) into your own words. You may find that the original source uses language that is more clear, concise, or specific than your own language, in which case you should use a direct quotation, putting quotation marks around those unique words or phrases you don't change. It is common to use a mixture of paraphrased text and quoted words or phrases, as long as the direct quotations are inside of quotation marks. 

Providing Context for Your Sources

Whether you use a direct quotation, a summary, or a paraphrase, it is important to distinguish the original source from your ideas, and to explain how the cited source fits into your argument. While the use of quotation marks or parenthetical citations tells your reader that these are not your own words or ideas, you should follow the quote with a description, in your own terms, of what the quote says and why it is relevant to the purpose of your paper. You should not let quoted or paraphrased text stand alone in your paper, but rather, should integrate the sources into your argument by providing context and explanations about how each source supports your argument. 

The writing process

Signaling who is saying what is an important part of the writing process.

Attributions

Taking Useful Notes on Your Sources

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"citation." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citation. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"How to Write a Research Paper in History/Doing research." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_Write_a_Research_Paper_in_History/Doing_research. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"All sizes | Index Card System | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/koalazymonkey/3331704619/sizes/l/in/photostream/. Flickr CC BY.

Maintaining an Annotated Bibliography

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"annotation." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/annotation. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"bibliography." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bibliography. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Annotated bibliography." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annotated_bibliography. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Annotated Bibliography." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Annotated_Bibliography. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"citation." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citation. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"All sizes | Bibliography | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/quinnanya/5124103273/sizes/l/in/photostream/. Flickr CC BY-SA.

Writing While You Research

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"drafting." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/drafting. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"idea." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/idea. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"note." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/note. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"How to Write a Research Paper in History/Organizing your work." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_Write_a_Research_Paper_in_History/Organizing_your_work. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"MacBook writing by H&#229;kan Dahlstr&#246;m in Writing on Fotopedia - Images for Humanity." http://www.fotopedia.com/items/flickr-3022965984. Fotopedia CC BY.

Incorporating Your Sources Into Your Paper

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"The Cain Project in Engineering and Professional Communication, What Is a Thesis? What Should Be in It?. September 17, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m15923/latest/. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.

"citation." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citation. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"quotation." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Miss A Writes a Song | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/mrsdkrebs/6812988187/. Flickr CC BY 2.0.

3.6: Citing Your Sources

3.6.1: The Importance of Citing Your Sources

To avoid plagiarism, one must provide an accurate citation every time information is used from an outside source.

Learning Objective

Identify the different types of citations and where they should appear in a paper.

Key Points

An accurate citation includes complete reference information written in a regulated format. This should allow the reader to find the complete resource that was cited.

Types of citations include parenthetical (in-text) citation, footnote, endnote, and full citation of all sources.

A complete reference section (often titled "References" or "Works Cited" depending on citation style) comes at the end of your paper and lists all cited sources in alphabetical order. 

There are several different formats for citations, including MLA, APA, and Turabian style (also known as Chicago style or CMS). Rules for each of these styles are given in style manuals; they include detailed explanations and examples of how to cite sources correctly.

Ask your teacher what specific style they want you to follow for your citations; typically they will want one style for all work submitted.

Key Terms

plagiarism

The copying of another person's ideas, text, or other creative work, and presenting it as one's own, especially without permission.

in-text citation

Reference information for a particular source presented within a paragraph, either as a parenthetical or integrated into a sentence.

footnote

A short piece of text, often numbered, placed at the bottom of a printed page, that adds a comment, citation, reference, etc., to a designated part of the main text. 

What Do You Need to Cite?

Any time you use specific material from an outside resource, you need to provide a citation that says exactly where you found that information. "Specific material" refers to quotations, detailed paraphrases, summaries, and images or graphs. If you use any of the above sources without citing them, you are committing plagiarism. If you are ever unsure whether to cite a source or not, you should cite the source. It is best to err on the side of caution to avoid plagiarism.

At the college level, plagiarism is an extremely serious offense. Students who plagiarize, whether intentionally or unintentionally, risk academic consequences that range from failing an assignment or a class to expulsion. Learning how to cite your sources is more than a stylistic requirement—it is a matter of academic integrity. 

You will cite resources in two places: a brief citation in the text of your paper (in-text citation), and a full citation in a reference page at the end of your essay.

In-Text Citations

In-text citations come in two forms: the parenthetical, and the footnote (or endnote).

Parentheticals

Parenthetical citations include the necessary information in parentheses after a sentence. Parenthetical citations should include only enough information to direct the reader to the specific information you are citing. Most citations will require only the last name of the author and the page number where the information comes from, but this will vary according to the style manual you are directed to use by your professor. The following is an example of a parenthetical citation:

Aldiss claims Erasmus Darwin was an influence on the Romantic poets who surrounded Mary Shelley, describing his thought as "seminal" (Aldiss, 13).

Footnotes and Endnotes

Footnotes include a number at the end of the sentence that directs the reader to the appropriate note at the bottom of the page. Endnotes are exactly like footnotes, except the notes are at the end of the paper rather than at the bottom of the page. Footnotes and endnotes can be used both to cite a source, to provide additional information, or to provide context for a word or concept in your text. 

For more detailed instructions, as well as information on what to do in exceptional circumstances, consult a style manual for whichever format is required.

Reference Section

Since in-text citations are kept brief, you will need to provide the full bibliographic details of your sources outside of the text of your paper. This is done in a reference section at the end of your paper. The name of this page differs depending on the style (MLA calls it the Works Cited section; APA calls it the References section). This page serves the same purpose for each style: it comes at the end of your paper and lists all your cited sources in alphabetical order (typically by the author's last name). 

Citation Style Manuals

Writing citations requires that you follow detailed formatting rules. There are several different formats, including MLA, APA, and Turabian style (also known as Chicago Manuscript Style). Rules for each of these styles are explained in style manuals, which include detailed explanations and many specific examples of how to cite things correctly.  Most style guides include sections on citing online sources; writers should pay extra attention to the rules for verifying and citing sources from the web. Many publications and professors now require authors to run their papers through online plagiarism tools to ensure writing is original.  

Your professor will most likely indicate the specific style that you should follow depending on the subject for which you are writing, so be sure to follow the correct style guide! You should find a copy of a style manual, either online or in print, and consult it frequently. It may seem tedious and fussy, but accurate citations are a necessary component of any reputable essay.

Understand your notes

Annotated bibliographies include notes that explain what you found useful in a source, making it easier for you to refer back to a source later.

Attributions

The Importance of Citing Your Sources

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Chicago-Style Citation Quick Guide." http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html. The Chicago Manual of Style Online Public domain.

"APA Style." https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2/10/. Purdue Online Writing Lab Public domain.

"MLA Formatting and Style Guide." https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/. Purdue Online Writing Lab Public domain.

"in-text citation." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/in-text%20citation. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"footnote." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/footnote. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"plagiarism." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plagiarism. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Citation." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Citation. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"All sizes | Bibliography | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/quinnanya/5124103273/sizes/l/in/photostream/. Flickr CC BY-SA.

4: Overview of English Grammar: Parts of Speech

4.1: Introduction to English Grammar and Mechanics

4.1.1: Components of a Sentence

English features four core sentence elements (subjects, predicates, objects, and modifiers) that make up phrases and clauses, which in turn make up sentences.

Learning Objective

Recognize a complete sentence by identifying its subject and predicate

Key Points

Within a sentence, the subject is the noun (or pronoun) that performs the action.

Within a sentence, the predicate is the verb or verb phrase that tells what action is being performed by the subject.

Within a sentence, the direct object is the person or object upon which the subject is acting.

Within a sentence, the indirect object answers the question "to whom/what?" or "for whom/what?"

A modifier gives more information about a sentence element.

A phrase is a group of words that does not contain both a subject and a verb.

Sentences are made up of clauses. A clause contains at least a subject and a finite verb.

Key Terms

complement

A word, phrase, or clause that is necessary to complete the meaning of a given expression.

phrase

A group of words that cannot stand on its own because it does not have both a subject and a verb.

fragment

An incomplete sentence, lacking a subject or a predicate.

subject

In a clause, the word or word group (usually a noun phrase) that represents a person, place or thing. In active clauses with verbs denoting an action, the subject and the actor are usually the same.

predicate

The part of the sentence (or clause) that states something about the subject or the object of the sentence.

sentence fragment

An incomplete sentence; a phrase or clause that is punctuated and capitalized as a sentence but does not constitute a complete grammatical sentence. It is usually caused either by the failure to include a subject and a verb in a sentence or by beginning a sentence with a subordinate conjunction or relative pronoun.

simple predicate

The verb or verb phrase of a sentence.

object

The noun or pronoun which is being acted upon, or at which the action is directed. There are two types: direct and indirect.

modifier

A word, phrase, or clause that limits or qualifies the sense of another word or phrase.

clause

Typically contains at least a subject noun phrase and a finite verb. The two main categories are independent and subordinate (or dependent).

Complete Sentences

In order to successfully craft sentences, one must first understand the core elements of complete English sentences: subjects, objects, predicates, and modifiers. The most important of these are subjects and predicates: in order for a sentence to be "complete," it must contain an action and someone (or something) doing it. The action is the predicate, and the person (or thing) doing it is the subject.

An incomplete sentence is called a fragment. Compare and contrast the sentences below:

I like pizza. Because it tastes delicious.

I like pizza because it tastes delicious.

Of the two examples above, the first contains a fragment: "Because it tastes delicious" is a fragment, or an incomplete thought. It has an "action" (tasting delicious) but no subject. 

The second example is correct; it has all the necessary components of a full sentence—a subject and a predicate.

It is important to understand that there are many gray areas of definition and usage when it comes to English-language sentence construction. For the purposes of understanding, we will start with basic ideas and simple examples. When you have a strong grasp of these, you will feel more able to handle the gray areas.

Subjects

The subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun (and its article, if it has one). In active-voice sentences, it is the noun or pronoun performing the action in the sentence. See the italicized subjects in the examples below:

The boy crossed the street.

She works in the city.

Mark is a good athlete.

In example 1, the subject, "the boy," is both a noun and its article. In example 2, the subject is a pronoun. In example 3, the subject is a noun (no article).

Predicates

The predicate explains the action of the sentence. The simple predicate refers to just the verb or verb phrase, linked to the subject, which tells what action is being performed by that subject. In the examples above, "crossed," "works," and "is" are all simple predicates.

There are more complex definitions of "predicate." Sometimes "predicate" can simply mean "everything except the subject." But just remember: the simple predicate is the action (verb or verb phrase) of a sentence.

In the examples below, the predicates are italicized:

The house is green. 

She seems angry.

The burden became excessive.

Objects

The object of a sentence is the noun or pronoun which is being acted upon, or at which the action is directed. There are two types of objects: direct objects and indirect objects. 

Direct Object

The direct object is the object which is being acted upon in the sentence. See the italicized direct objects in the examples below:

Johnny throws the ball.

Jill cuts the cake.

Bill rides the bike. 

Indirect Object

The indirect object answers the questions “to whom/what?”or “for whom/what?” in a sentence. It is not acted upon. See the italicized indirect objects in the examples below:

Johnny throws the ball to me.

Jill cuts the cake for her friends.

Bill rides the bike to school.

No Object

Some sentences do not need an object and consist of only a subject and a verb predicate. For example:

Mary smiled.

Fred sneezed.

This can happen because some verbs (like the ones above) don't require an object. When a verb doesn't need an object, it is called an intransitive verb. (We'll talk more about this later.)

Modifiers

A modifier is a phrase in a sentence that provides additional information about an element within that sentence. There are three basic kinds of modifying constructions:

Single-word modifiers (adjectives and adverbs): It was a nice house.

Modifying phrases (e.g., prepositional, participial, infinitive, and appositive phrases): Barry Goldwater, the junior senator from Arizona, received the Republican nomination in 1964. (appositive phrase)

Modifying clauses (a clause is any group of words with its own subject and predicate): The only one of the seven dwarfs who does not have a beard is Dopey. (adjective clause)

Compound Elements

In a given sentence, there may be more than one of any of the four core sentence elements. Compound elements can include:

Compound subject: Mary and Tom went to the dance.

Compound predicate: He ran to the house and knocked on the door.

Compound modifier: He rode a small white pony.

Phrases

A phrase is a collection of words that may have nouns or verbals, but it does not have a subject doing a verb. The following are examples of phrases:

leaving behind the dog

smashing into a fence

before the first test

after the devastation

between ignorance and intelligence

broken into thousands of pieces

because of her glittering smile

In these examples, you will find nouns (dog, fence, test, devastation, ignorance, intelligence, thousands, pieces). You also have some verbals (leaving, smashing), but in no case is the noun functioning as a subject doing a predicate verb. They are all phrases.

Clauses

A clause is a collection of words that has a subject that is actively doing a verb. The following are examples of clauses:

since she laughs at men

I despise individuals of low character

when the saints go marching in

because she smiled at him

Note that in the examples above, we find either a noun or a pronoun that is a subject (italicized) attached to a verb phrase (also italicized).

Independent and Dependent Clauses

If the clause could stand by itself—that is, form a complete sentence with punctuation—we call it an independent clause. The following are independent clauses:

I despise individuals of low character

Helen loves Canadian geese

We could easily turn independent clauses into complete sentences by adding appropriate punctuation marks. We might say, "I despise individuals of low character." Or we might write, "Helen loves Canadian geese!" We call them independent because these types of clauses can stand by themselves, without any extra words attached, and be complete sentences.

By contrast, dependent (also called subordinating) clauses cannot stand on their own. The following are dependent clauses:

when the saints go marching in

because she smiled at him

Sentence diagram 1

This diagram shows some of the component parts of a sentence, and demonstrates how they relate to each other.

4.1.2: Structure of a Sentence

Different types of sentences are used for different purposes and in different parts of a paper, but the foundation of all good sentences is a strong subject and verb.

Learning Objective

Classify sentences based on sentence structure and purpose

Key Points

To create a strong sentence, begin with a specific subject and a strong verb.

Sentences can be classified by their structure or by their purpose.

Structural classifications for sentences include: simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences.

Particular connectors are used to impart particular meanings in compound and complex sentences.

Classification categories for sentences by purpose include declarations, interrogatives, exclamations, and imperatives.

In the revision stage of writing, it's useful to go over the paper with an eye toward the appropriateness and variety of sentence construction.

Key Terms

imperative sentence

A statement that tells the reader, in the form of a request, suggestion, or demand, to do something.

exclamatory sentence

An emphatic form of statement that expresses emotion.

declarative sentence

A statement or declaration about something.

compound-complex sentence

Multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one subordinate clause.

complex sentence

At least one independent clause and one subordinate clause.

simple sentences

A single independent clause with no subordinate clauses.

compound sentence

Multiple independent clauses with no subordinate clauses.

interrogative sentence

Also called a question, it is commonly used to request information.

Like an architect can create walls, bridges, arches, and roads with the same bricks, you can create sentences that serve varying functions using the building blocks of words. Just as an architect plans different features in an edifice to create a strong and beautiful building, a writer must use a variety of sentence structures to capture readers' interest. And like a builder must begin with a solid foundation, your sentences need to begin with clear, strong words. The more practice you have putting sentences together, the more interesting your writing will become.

First, let's work on clarity through specificity. "Le bon mot," or "the right word," is key, and it begins with nouns and verbs.

Subjects and Verbs

Despite contrary trends in the popular press, formal writing still requires of a sentence both a subject and a verb. Getting those two things right will put you well on the way to writing well.

Jesus wept.

The schooner capsized.

She died.

They won.

Paris seduces.

It is.

These are all sentences.  

You already know that you need a subject and a verb to create a sentence. What you may not know is that these are the two most important parts of a sentence to get right. The more specific the noun, the more your reader will be able to picture what it is you're talking about ("schooner" is more specific than "boat," "Paris" more specific than "France"). Pronouns work well when the antecedent is clear. While repeating a noun can get ponderous, unidentifiable pronouns confuse the reader.

Verbs, too, captivate when they're exact. Adjectives and adverbs, it's said, were invented for those who don't know enough verbs. Take the sentence "Paris seduces," for example. You could just as easily say, "Paris is seductive," but the use of the verb "to be" makes the sentence less active and alive.

From this solid base, you can begin adding your objects and clauses to create more complex sentences.

Classifying Sentences by Structure

Sentences can be classified by their structure or by their purpose. You'll want to keep both in mind as you write.

Structural classifications for sentences include simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences.

You'll want to have a mix of sentence types in almost anything you write, as varying length and complexity keeps the reader's attention. The sing-song nature of same-length sentences seems to trigger a lullaby response in our brains, and our eyes can't help but droop. In addition to the rhythm of it, though, you'll communicate more substance with varying sentence lengths.

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no subordinate clauses. For example:

I love chocolate cake with rainbow sprinkles.

"Without love, life would be empty." This sentence contains a subject (life), a verb (would be) and two types of modifiers (without love and empty).

Simple sentences are often used to introduce a topic or present a new thought in an argument—for example, "Juries are charged with rendering impartial verdicts," or "Income taxes are high in Scandinavian countries." You may notice that with both these examples, the reader is likely to start formulating objections or opinions about the topic right away. As a writer, you can use simple sentences in this way. Writing a simple sentence to begin a paragraph can have the reader making your argument for you before you've even begun to state your point. 

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses with no subordinate clauses. These clauses are joined together using conjunctions, punctuation, or both. For example:

I love chocolate cake with rainbow sprinkles, and I eat it all the time for breakfast.

Together we stand; united we fall.

You can feel the power of that second example. Using a semicolon without a conjunction adds drama to a compound sentence, especially when you're comparing two concepts and the independent clauses are of approximately equal length.

Compound sentences connected with "and" make connections between ideas. The sentence, "It's clear that we do have the means to end poverty worldwide, and every moment we hesitate means one more child dies of hunger," exposes the connection between having the means to end poverty and the consequences of not employing those means.  

Using "but" takes exception with the first clause: "Eileen treats her boyfriend like a servant, but he isn't going to stand for that for long."

You can use a semicolon to show a relationship between clauses: "Bats are nocturnal; they are active only at night."

"However," "nonetheless," and "still" are often used as qualifiers between independent clauses. For example, "There were no luxuries like pillows in the convent; however, some residents did find ways to create comfort."

You can show causation using "therefore" and "thus,"—for example, "The countries that are least committed to reducing fossil fuel use are the largest; therefore, we are unlikely to stave the crisis.

You can show emphasis using connectors like, "moreover," and "furthermore." "Hilda has not done her chores in a week; moreover, she has been eating twice her share at dinner."

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence consists of at least one independent clause and one subordinate clause. For example:

"While I love him dearly, I will get rid of my pterodactyl for the sake of the community."

"Those who eat chocolate cake will be happy." In this case, the subordinate clause, "who eat chocolate cake" is in the middle of the sentence.

"If-then" sentences are complex sentences: "If Americans don't change their dietary habits, the medical system will soon be bankrupt." (Notice that the "then" is implied.)

Other connectors for complex sentences include "because," "although," "so that," "since." 

"I have had strong convictions since I was old enough to reason."

Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence (or complex-compound sentence) consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one subordinate clause. For example:

"I love my pet pterodactyl, but since he's been eating neighborhood cats, I will donate him to the city zoo." Here, the subordinate clause is, "since he's been eating neighborhood cats."

"Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are." This sentence contains two independent clauses (one before and one after the comma), and each independent clause contains a subordinate clause ("what you eat" and "what you are").

There are countless variations of compound-complex sentences, and while they can be complicated, they are often necessary in order to make complete connections between ideas. Don't make the mistake, though, of using them unnecessarily. Break thoughts into new sentences when you can. When you do use one, try to insert a simple sentence after it. Your reader may need a rest.

Selecting Sentence Construction

North Americans eat a lot of fast food. They also have a high rate of disease.

North Americans eat a lot of fast food, and they have a high rate of disease.

If North Americans continue to eat a lot of fast food, they will continue to have a high rate of disease.

If North Americans, who eat a lot of fast food, continue to do so, they will likely continue to have a high rate of disease, as proper nutrition is vital to immune function.

In looking at the various sentence forms above, you can see that each sentence gives you a different feel. Can you see how each might be appropriate in different contexts? The simple sentences might work in an introduction to begin to draw the parallel. The compound sentence makes the connection clear. The complex sentence sounds more like a lesson in its "if-then" format, and the compound-complex sentence packs all the information into one conclusive sentence. Which of these sounds most convincing as an argument? Which allows you to draw your own conclusion?  

Classifying Sentences by Purpose

English sentences can also be classified based on their purpose: declarations, interrogatives, exclamations, and imperatives. When you're composing a paper, you'll want to clarify the purpose of your sentences to be sure you're selecting the appropriate form.

Declarations

A declarative sentence, or declaration, is the most common type of sentence. It makes a statement. For example:

"Most Americans must work to survive."

"I love watching the parrots migrate."

Because you'll be relying on statements most of the time, you'll want to vary the structure of your declarative sentences, using the forms above, to be sure your paragraphs don't feel plodding. One declaration after the next can lull the reader into complacency (or, worse, sleep).

Interrogatives

An interrogative sentence, or question, is commonly used to request information. For example:

"Do you know what it's like to have to go to work to be able to eat?"

"Why has the sky suddenly turned green?"

While you don't want to overuse the interrogative in an essay, it does serve to wake the reader up a bit. You're asking the reader to find the answer within him- or herself, rather than simply digesting fact after fact. Helping the reader formulate questions about the topic early can engage readers by accessing their curiosity. 

Exclamations

An exclamatory sentence, or exclamation, is a more emphatic form of statement that expresses emotion. For example:

I have to go to work!

Get away from me!

"Show some restraint!" is the general guideline for using exclamations in a paper. And yet, there are times when it won't seem amateurish or overly hard-hitting. When you're exposing a contradiction in your opposition's views, for example, or an inconsistency between views and behaviors, you can signal the importance of this diversion with an exclamation. Recognize, though, that using exclamations only sparingly will bolster your credibility. Like the boy who cried wolf, if you get a reputation for yelling all the time, people will begin to ignore you, even when it really matters.

Imperatives

An imperative sentence tells someone to do something (and may be considered both imperative and exclamatory). This may be in the form of a request, a suggestion, or a demand, and the intended audience is the reader.

Go to work.

Trust me!

Imperatives can be effective in making an argument. You can introduce evidence with an imperative (e.g., "Consider the current immigrant crisis in Europe"). You can use an imperative to transition from a counter-argument: "Don't be fooled by this faulty logic." You might include an imperative in your conclusion, if you're including a call to action: "Act now to end human trafficking." 

Checking for Appropriate Sentence Structure and Purpose

In the revision stage of writing, make sure to make a pass over the paper with an eye toward sentence construction. Are there too many interrogatives or exclamations? Does the prose sound convoluted because I use too many compound-complex sentences? Do I sound condescending because I'm using too many simple sentences? Do the connectors I'm using fit with this particular sentence?

Enjoy constructing your argument using the forms sentences can take. Designing a paper using your skill with sentence structure can feel thoroughly satisfying.

4.1.3: Introduction to Inflection

In the context of grammar, inflection is altering a word to change its form, usually by adding letters.

Learning Objective

Define grammatical inflection

Key Points

In English grammar, "inflection" refers to changing a word to suit its grammatical context (e.g., making a noun plural when you're talking about more than one, making a verb past tense when you're talking about something that has already happened).

In English, there are many rules that tell you how to change words to suit context, but there are also quite a few exceptions that you'll just have to memorize.

Pronouns and nouns change form depending on whether they are the subject (i.e., the actor) or the direct or indirect object (i.e., the thing being acted upon) of a sentence.

Key Terms

conjugation

The creation of derived forms of a verb from its principal parts by inflection.

declension

The inflection of nouns, pronouns, articles, and adjectives.

inflection

In the grammatical sense, modifying a word, usually by adding letters, to create a different form of that word.

In English grammar, "inflection" is the broad umbrella term for changing a word to suit its grammatical context. You’ve probably never heard this word before, but you actually do it all the time without even thinking about it. For example, you know to say "Call me tomorrow" instead of "Call I tomorrow”; you’ve changed the noun “I” to fit the context (i.e., so it can be used as a direct object instead of a subject).

A word you might have heard before, especially if you’ve taken a foreign language like Spanish, is “conjugation.” Conjugation is the specific type of inflection that has to do with verbs. For example, you change a verb based on who is performing the verb: you would say “You call me,” but “She calls me.” Again, you know to do this automatically.

Nouns and Pronouns

We often need to change nouns based on grammatical context. For example, if you change from singular to plural (e.g., from “cat” to “cats,” or from “syllabus” to “syllabi”), you’re “inflecting” the noun. Similarly, if you’re changing the pronoun “I” to “me,” or “she” to “her,” the person you’re referring to isn’t changing, but the word you use does, because of context. "She calls I" is incorrect, as is "Her calls me"; you know to instead say "She calls me."

Verbs

To recap, "conjugation" refers to changing a verb to suit its grammatical context. This can mean changing the verb based on who is performing the verb (e.g., “you read,” but “she reads”) or based on the time the action is occurring, also known as the verb’s “tense” (e.g., “you walk” for the present, and “you walked” for the past).

Adjectives

You also might need to change some adjectives based on the grammatical context of the rest of your sentence. For example, if you’re trying to compare how sunny today’s weather is to yesterday’s weather, you would change the adjective “sunny” to “sunnier”: “Today is sunnier than yesterday.”

Adverbs

Inflecting adverbs is very similar to how you change adjectives. For example, if you want to compare how quickly two students are learning math, you would change the adverb “easily” to “more easily”: “Huck is learning his fractions much more easily than Tom is.”

Attributions

Components of a Sentence

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Appositive." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appositive. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Grammatical modifier." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_modifier. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Verb phrase." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_phrase. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"subject." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subject. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"sentence fragment." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sentence_fragment. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"predicate." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/predicate. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"modifier." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/modifier. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Adjectival clause." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjectival_clause%23Adjective_clause. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Parts of the Sentence." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_the_Sentence. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"The difference between a clause and a phrase." http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/133853/the-difference-between-a-clause-and-a-phrase. English Language CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Sentence diagram." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_diagram. Wikipedia CC BY.

Structure of a Sentence

"Using Varied Sentence Lengths and Styles.." https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/style-structure-grammar-5/sentence-style-29/using-varied-sentence-lengths-and-styles-128-8088/. Boundless License: Other.

Introduction to Inflection

"Declension." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declension. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Inflection." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Grammatical Conjugation." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

4.2: Nouns

4.2.1: Nouns as Subjects and Objects

Nouns can be either the subject or object of sentences.

Learning Objective

Identify whether a noun functions as a subject or object

Key Points

The subject of a sentence completes the action of the sentence.

The direct object of the sentence receives the action of the sentence.

The indirect object of the sentence answers the question "to whom/what?" or "for whom/what?" for the action of the sentence.

For sentences in active voice, the subject comes before the verb.

For sentences in passive voice, the subject comes after the verb.

Key Terms

subject noun

Completes the action(s) in a sentence.

object noun

Receives the action in a sentence or answers the question "to whom/what?" or "for whom/what?"

Nouns can take on two different roles in a sentence: they can be subjects or objects. Understanding subjects and objects simply means understanding who (or what) performed an action, and who (or what) was affected by that action.

Identifying Subjects

In a sentence, the subject completes the action. The subjects are italicized in the examples below:

Mary drew a picture for her mother. 

Lions eat many animals, such as rabbits.

The subject does not have to be a person or animal—it can also be an inanimate object: 

The coffee let off steam. 

The cup is on the table. 

Note that the subject includes not just the noun, but also the article (e.g., the, a, an) that goes along with it.

Identifying Objects

An object is the recipient of an action. There are two types of object: direct and indirect. 

Direct Objects

In a sentence, the direct object receives the action of the subject. See the italicized direct objects in the examples below:

Mary drew a picture.

The tiger chased the bunny. 

Indirect Objects

In a sentence, the indirect object answers the question "to whom or what?" or "for whom or what?" See the italicized indirect objects in the examples below.

Mary drew a picture for her mother.

Bill threw the ball to his sister.

Sign

In this sign saying "Do not feed the coyotes", are coyotes the subject, the object, or the indirect object? (Answer: They are the direct object.)

Identifying Indirect Objects without a Preposition

Sometimes direct object and indirect object cannot be identified by word order alone—and there is not always a "to" or "for" to make it clear: 

The boy fed the dog a bone. 

To correctly identify the indirect object, ask yourself which part of the sentence would answer the question "to/for whom or what?" 

"The boy fed a bone to the dog." 

Phrased this way, it becomes clear that the dog is the indirect object and the bone is the direct object.

Identifying Subject and Object in the Active Voice

If a sentence is written in the active voice, it means that the subject comes before the verb, and the object follows the verb. All of the examples above are written in the active voice. 

A simple way to identify whether a noun is a subject or an object in an active-voice sentence is to note where it is in the sentence. If the noun precedes the verb, it is the subject. If it follows the verb, it is the object. See the examples below:

The alien landed the spaceship. (“The alien” is the subject and “the spaceship” is the direct object.) 

Mathilda ate the sandwich. (“Mathilda” is the subject and “the sandwich” is the direct object.)

Identifying Subject and Object in the Passive Voice

In passive-voice sentences, the usual rules do not apply. Rather, we need to look at word order to find the subject and object. In a passive-voice sentence, keep in mind that the order will be subject–verb phrase–object. See the following examples.

The sandwich was eaten by Mathilda. (“The sandwich” is the subject and “Mathilda” is the object.)

The spaceship was steered by the alien. (“The spaceship” is the subject and “the alien” is the object.)

In the passive voice, a noun coming after the word "by" is an object, while a noun coming before a form of the verb "to be" (e.g., "was") is the subject. Note the italicized words in the examples above.

Verb Types and Objects

Not all verbs require objects. A verb that requires an object is called a transitive verb: 

She wants cake.

Without the object "cake," the sentence is incomplete and doesn't make sense. What does she want? 

A verb that does not require an object is called an intransitive verb: 

I slept. 

With an intransitive verb, the sentence is complete with the subject and verb alone.

Attributions

Nouns as Subjects and Objects

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"subject pronoun." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subject_pronoun. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Object pronoun." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/object%20pronoun. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"No_Feeding.jpg." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coyote%23/media/File:No_Feeding.jpg. Wikipedia CC BY 2.0.

4.3: Pronouns

4.3.1: Introduction to Pronouns

Pronouns replace nouns to reduce redundancy and link phrases together to provide more information.

Learning Objective

Identify pronouns by type

Key Points

Pronouns take the place of nouns to reduce redundancy. The noun a pronoun replaces is known as that pronoun's antecedent.

It is crucial to ensure that each pronoun has a clear antecedent so the reader does not get confused.

Relative pronouns ("who," "whom," "whose," "that," "which") are used to link subordinate clauses to the subject they describe.

Interrogative pronouns introduce questions of identification ("who," "whom," "whose," "what," "which").

Demonstrative pronouns identify specific people, places, things, or ideas (e.g., "this," "that," "these," "those").

Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific people or things (e.g., "anyone," "most").

Key Terms

subordinate clause

A clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence but that functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb in a larger sentence.

relative clause

A subordinate clause that modifies a noun.

antecedent

The noun being replaced by a pronoun.

Pronouns and Antecedents 

Pronouns can be very useful when standing in for other nouns or noun phrases. They make sentences less repetitive by eliminating the need to repeat the same nouns over and over again. However, they are only useful if the reader always knows what word the pronoun is replacing—the pronoun's antecedent. This can partly be done through word order. Don't separate a pronoun too far from its antecedent, and don't use a pronoun unless its antecedent has already been established.

The different types of pronouns include the following:

personal pronouns

possessive pronouns

intensive and reflexive pronouns

relative pronouns

interrogative pronouns

demonstrative pronouns

indefinite pronouns

Personal Pronouns 

Personal pronouns refer to a specific grammatical person. "Grammatical person" means either the first-person, second-person, or third-person. The first-person refers to yourself and therefore uses the pronoun "I." The second-person pronoun is "you," and the third-person pronouns are "he," "she," "it." 

I am going to the concert.

You can come with me. 

She did not get a ticket before they sold out. 

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns show ownership in relation to the pronoun. Possessive pronouns are "my," "your," "his," "hers," "its," "ours," "your," and "their." For example:

Marvin was nervous meeting with the interviewer but shook her hand when introduced. 

Reflexive/Intensive Pronouns

Reflexive and intensive pronouns take the same form but have different uses. They include "myself," "yourself," "himself," "herself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Reflexive pronouns "reflect" back to the subject. You know a "-self" pronoun is reflexive if the sentence wouldn't make sense without it. For example:

(Reflexive) The model could see himself in the reflection of the camera lens. 

In contrast, an intensive pronouns provides extra emphasis, but the sentence would still make sense without it. For example:

She finished the paper herself. 

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns link different phrases within a sentence to give more information about the people or things involved. They allow you to combine connected ideas in the same sentence rather than breaking them down into multiple ones.

Consider the difference between the following sentences:

That man yelled at us to get off his lawn. He did not even own the property.

The man who yelled at us to get off his lawn did not even own the property.

Both sentences communicate the same thing, but the second does a better job of connecting the two events. Similarly:

Ruth is the store manager. She rang up my groceries. 

Ruth is the store manager who rang up my groceries. 

As you can see, relative clauses can be useful in streamlining your writing and improving your flow. Be careful not to use too many of them at once, though; sentences that are too long may confuse your reader. Be sure to ask yourself whether the clause actually clarifies a sentence or makes it too long and complicated.

Types of Relative Pronouns

The main relative pronouns dealing with people are "who" (used to relate to people or creatures as subjects), "whom" (used to relate to people or creatures as subjects), and "whose" (used to relate to a possession of a person or creature).

Person (subject): The girl who wore a yellow dress

Person (object): The girl whom I complimented about her yellow dress

Creature (subject): The cat who lived next door

The main relative pronouns dealing with things are "that" and "which." "That" is used to relate to things (as both subjects and objects) when there is more than one thing you could be referring to:

Thing (object): The desk that my mother bought

Thing (subject): The desk that fell apart

These sentences imply that there are several different desks, and the additional information you provide—the desk that your mother bought, the desk that fell apart—is crucial to identify which of those several desks you're talking about. 

Similarly, "which" is also used to relate to things (as both subjects and objects)—but its crucial difference is that it is used when there is only one thing you could be referring to. That is to say, the reader already knows exactly which item you're referring to; you're just telling them more detail about that item:

Thing (object): The desk, which my mother bought

Thing (subject): The desk, which fell apart

In these phrases, there are not several desks that the writer could be talking about; there is only one desk, period. The writer is giving the reader the information that the desk was bought by her mother, or that it fell apart—but that information isn't necessary for identifying the thing in the first place.

It is important to note that in sentences using "which" as a relative pronoun, a comma is needed before the word "which" for the phrase to be grammatically correct.

Subordinate Clauses

Relative pronouns introduce what are called subordinate clauses. Subordinate clauses are phrases within a sentence that modify the subject of the sentence. For example, in the phrase "The girl who wore a yellow dress," the subordinate clause "who wore a yellow dress" helps to modify the subject of "the girl." That is to say, it helps answer the question, "which girl?" Similarly, in the phrase "The desk that fell apart," the subordinate clause "that fell apart" helps to identify which desk the writer is talking about.

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns introduce questions. The main forms are "who/whom" (for people and beings), "whose" (for possessive pronouns), "what" (to introduce general questions), and "which" (for identification and comparison):

Person or being (as subject): Who wants to go to the movies with me?

Person or being (as object): To whom was the letter addressed?

Possessive: Whose is that book on the table?

General question: What time is it? What do you think of the weather today?

Identification: Which desk are you talking about?

Comparison: Which play do you think is better, Hamlet or King Lear?

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns point out specific people, places, things, and ideas. The main forms are "this/that" (singular) and "these/those" (plural). These pronouns can either be used for comparisons or on their own. They are also called determiners and can function as adjectives for their antecedents:

Comparison: I would rather go to that restaurant than this one.

Alone: I think this book is really good.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific people or things. Indefinite pronouns include:

all

both

any

few

everyone

each

nobody

some

several

neither

Choose your indefinite pronoun based on the number or amount of people or things you're talking about. As always, remember to make sure that the antecedent is clear; avoid ambiguous sentence constructions in which pronouns could refer to multiple different words.

4.3.2: Pronouns as Subjects and Objects

Pronouns can be the subject or the object of a sentence. 

Learning Objective

Identify whether a pronoun functions as a subject or object

Key Points

Pronouns take the place of a noun and can be personal, possessive, reflexive, or intensive. 

Pronouns can be the subject or the object of a sentence. 

Using the various types of pronouns appropriately in sentences will improve your writing.  

Key Terms

possessive pronoun

A word that shows ownership. 

intensive pronoun

A word that emphasizes the noun.

object pronoun

A word that is typically used as the direct or indirect object of a verb, or the object of a preposition. 

subject pronoun

A word that is used as the subject of a verb. 

reflexive pronoun

A word that refers back to the subject. 

Pronouns as Subjects and Objects

In a sentence, the subject completes the action whereas the object is the recipient of that action. Pronouns can act as both subjects and objects. 

Example: Janice has a yellow car. She drives it every day. 

Explanation: "She" is the subject pronoun referring to Janice and "it" is the object pronoun referring to the car.  

As long as their antecedents are clear, using pronouns as subjects and objects in your academic writing greatly simplifies your wording and communicates your ideas much more powerfully.

Personal Pronouns

Personal Subject Pronouns

Personal subject pronouns refer to the one or ones completing an action. Personal subject pronouns are I, he, she, it, we, you, they. For example:

I am going to the mall. 

You can go to the game. 

Both "I" and "you" are pronouns. In these examples they are subject pronouns because they are completing an action. 

Personal Object Pronouns

Personal object pronouns refer to one or ones who receive the action. Personal object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, them. For example:

Jane is coming with me.

I'm giving him the car tonight. 

In these examples, "me" and "him" are receiving the action of the verb. Therefore, they are object pronouns. 

Possessives

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns show ownership in relation to the pronoun. Possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, it, ours, yours, and theirs. For example:

The house on the corner is his. 

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives show ownership. Possessive adjectives are my, your, his, her, its, our, and their. For example, when paired with the noun school in a sentence, his becomes a possessive adjective.

His school is a few miles away. 

Intensive/Reflexive

Reflexive pronouns refer back to, or "reflect" (hence the name), the subject. Intensive pronouns emphasize the noun. Intensive and reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. 

Intensive example: I did it myself. 

"Myself" emphasizes "I" and is therefore an intensive pronoun. Also, if "myself" were removed, the meaning of the sentence would not change. 

Jane bought herself a car. 

"Herself" is the reflexive pronoun because it "reflects" back to the subject: Jane.

Other categories of pronouns do not have forms for every single category on the lists above. Their forms are determined primarily by their grammatical function or antecedent rather than by person. Some do have forms that depend on number.

Attributions

Introduction to Pronouns

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Personal Pronoun." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_pronoun%23Antecedents. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Pronoun." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pronoun. Wikitionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Demonstrative Pronoun." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/demonstrative_pronoun. Wikitionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"subordinate clause." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subordinate_clause. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Antecendent." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/antecedent. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"relative pronoun." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/relative_pronoun. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"relative clause." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/relative_clause. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Sentences." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Sentences. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Parts of Speech." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23Pronouns. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Parts of Speech." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23Pronouns. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Project Gutenberg." http://www.gutenberg.org/files/39235/39235-h/39235-h.htm. Public domain.

Pronouns as Subjects and Objects

"Subject Pronoun." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_pronoun. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Possessive." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possessive. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Reflexive Pronouns ." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Object Pronoun." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_pronoun. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Intensive Pronoun." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_pronoun. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

4.4: Verbs

4.4.1: Introduction to Verbs: Tense, Aspect, and Mood

Verbs are crucial to expressing a sentence's meaning, so it is important to use them correctly. 

Learning Objective

Identify transitive, intransitive, and linking verbs

Key Points

Every sentence needs a verb. Verbs express action, describe an event, or establish a state of being. 

Verbs are influenced by tense, aspect, and mood. 

"Verb tense" refers to when the action occurred. The most common tenses are past, present, or future.

"Verb aspect" refers to the flow of time. Aspect addresses whether or not the action takes place in a single block of time or if the action is continuous or repeated.

"Verb mood" refers to the "attitude" of the action. Is the verb actually happening, possibly happening, or being commanded to happen? 

Key Terms

verb

A word that expresses an action, describes an occurrence, or establishes a state of being. 

direct object

A word that answers the question, "What is being acted upon?" In "Danielle ate fruit," fruit is a direct object of the verb ate.

aspect

Describes the action's degree of progress or completion. The three main aspects are indefinite, progressive, and perfect.

tense

Any of the forms of a verb that distinguish when an action or state of being occurs or exists. The three simple tenses are past, present, and future.

A verb is a word that expresses an action, describes an occurrence, or establishes a state of being. Every sentence needs at least one verb, which is paired with the subject. All verbs have tense, aspect, and mood, of which there is a wide variety of combinations. These concepts are part of the foundation of accurately expressing your thoughts in writing.

Verb Tense 

Tense indicates when the action expressed by a verb takes place. The three simple tenses are past, present, and future.

Different tenses take different verb forms, either by changing the word itself or by adding helping verbs. There is no single formula for how to change verb tenses. Here are a few examples:

Present Tense

Present tense expresses unchanging actions and states of being. It is also used with recurring actions and with universal or widespread truths.

I walk

She runs

Past Tense

Past tense is used for actions that started and finished in the past.

I walked

She ran

Future Tense

Future tense expresses an action or event that will take place in the future.

I will walk

She will run

Verbal Aspect

"Verbal aspect" refers to the timing of the verb. More specifically, it addresses whether the action occurs in a single block of time, continuously, or repetitively. All verbs have both tense and aspect. Verbal aspect consists of simple, progressive, perfect, or perfect progressive, where each refers to a different fabric of time. 

Simple

The simple aspect is used to express a single action, a repeated action, or a permanent state. 

Permanent state: David lives in Raleigh, North Carolina. 

Repeated or habitual action: He runs every morning. 

Single action: He graduated from the University of North Carolina. 

Progressive

The progressive aspect is used to talk about continuous events.

Dr. Jones was lecturing about grammar. 

Jane is reading a novel. 

Perfect 

The perfect aspect is used to discuss completed actions. It is often formed by the verb have combined with a past tense verb. 

My family had left before the flooding reached our home. 

She has visited their mountain home. 

Perfect Progressive

The perfect progressive combines the perfect and the progressive to refer to the completed portion of a continuous action. 

The news crew had been working for more than twelve hours to provide full coverage of the event. 

I will have been sleeping for many hours by then.

Verbal Mood

Verb mood is to the "attitude" of the verb. More specifically, "mood" refers to the degree of necessity, obligation, or probability. Is it a statement of fact? Is it a command? Mood can be expressed in any verb tense. The three main moods used in English are indicative, subjunctive, imperative. 

Indicative

The indicative mood is used for factual statements.

Sally is drinking coffee.

Sally drinks coffee.

Sally drank coffee. 

Subjunctive

The subjunctive mood is for hypothetical situations, emotions, or making requests. It is often (but not always) paired with a clause containing would, should, or could, or an if-then statement.

If I were a pilot, I would fly through the clouds.

The carousel closed. I wish it were still in use. 

Imperative

The imperative mood is used to give commands. 

Go finish your homework. 

Please hang your coat. 

Don't eat a snack now or  you'll ruin your supper. 

Special Types of Verbs

Linking Verbs

Linking verbs are used to connect subjects with their complements. They may be the main verb in a sentence, even if they express a description rather than an action. The most common linking verb is to be, which takes many different forms:

This tea is hot.

There are many books in his library.

Other common linking verbs include the following:

appear

become

seem

taste

continue

remain

Linking verbs take no direct objects. Consequently, if a sentence's main verb is a linking verb, it cannot be written in the passive voice.

Transitive Verbs

Transitive verbs describe actions that are done to a specific thing, called the verb's direct object.

She cut her hair. (Subject: She. Transitive verb: cut. Direct object: her hair.)

Romeo kissed Juliet. (Subject: Romeo. Verb: kissed. Object: Juliet.)

All of the verbs are performed by the subject, to something or someone else.

Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs are actions that are complete on their own, and do not require any object:

Sally ran fast.

The bird flew.

Most verbs can be classified as transitive or intransitive, depending on their context. Just remember, if your verb has an object, make sure it's clear to the reader: Don't say "Sally kissed her" if you don't know who "her" is! 

He walked the wire

The verb tense in the title signals that this action took place in the past. It is not only important to have subject and verb agreement, but also to utilize the correct verb tense to ensure that a sentence contains its intended meaning.

4.4.2: Verb Tense: Past, Present, and Future

Verb tense indicates whether the action of a sentence occurred in the past, present, or future.

Learning Objective

Identify the tense of a verb

Key Points

In English, the three basic verb tenses are past, present, and future.

Verbs in past tense express what happened in the past.

Verbs in present tense express actions that are currently happening, or occur over a period of time that includes the present.

Verbs in future tense express actions that will happen in the future.

All verbs have both tense and aspect. Because there are three verb tenses and four verb aspects, there are twelve possible combinations of tense and aspect.

Key Terms

tense

Any of the forms of a verb that distinguish when an action or state of being occurs or exists. The three simple tenses are past, present, and future.

verb

A word that indicates an action, event, or state.

aspect

A grammatical category that expresses how a verb relates to the flow of time. 

Verb Tenses

The verb contains the action of the sentence. Without verbs, we couldn't talk about running, or jumping, or eating. And without verb tenses, we couldn't talk about when we did those things. Did we eat dinner yesterday? Will we go for a run tomorrow? We need verb tenses to talk about time.

Present Tenses

The present tense refers to circumstances that exist now, or that have occurred over a period of time that includes the present. Present tense can also be used to express basic facts or circumstances that are continuous. 

Simple Present

The simple present expresses current events, recurring events, and general facts.

There is a shady park down the block.

I paint a portrait of my cat every week.

Mary hears a noise in the attic.

The verbs is, paint, and hears are in the simple present tense. They refer to actions that are occurring in the present.

Present Progressive 

The present progressive expresses continuous actions.

I am reading a letter.

The car is running at high speed.

Michael and Anna are always working in the library.

To show that the action is continuous the verbs reading, running, and working are paired with the appropriate form of the verb to be (am, is, are). 

Present Perfect

The present perfect expresses a completed event that is still relevant to the present.

I have read several of Shaw's novels.

She has seen him every Saturday this month.

Jed has sampled six ice cream flavors so far.

In these examples, have and has are paired with read, seen, and sampled to show readers that these actions began in the past and are still occurring in the present. 

Present Perfect Progressive

Finally, the present perfect progressive expresses a continuous action that began in the past and continues into the present.

I have been standing on this corner for six hours.

She has been dreaming of becoming an actress since she was ten.

Even though it's raining, that Girl Scout has been selling cookies all day.

The present perfect progressive tense combines have/has with been and the verb to show that the action began in the past and is still occurring in the present. 

Past Tenses

The past tense refers to events that have occurred in the past or an event that occurred continually in the past. It can also be used when discussing hypothetical situations. The types of past tense are simple past, past progressive, past perfect, and the past perfect progressive.  

Simple Past

First, the simple past expresses a past event:

Last week, I read several of Shaw's novels.

The mother took her son to the beach every day last summer.

The book sat on the shelf, collecting dust.

The verbs read, took, and sat are in the past tense to show these actions have already occurred. 

Past Progressive

The past progressive expresses a continuous action in the past:

She was giving a presentation when the microphone broke.

The computer was downloading the file for 20 minutes.

During their first year, the puppies were growing at an alarming rate.

In the past progressive tense, the primary action verbs (in this case giving, downloading, and growing) are paired with the past tense of the verb to be (was/were) to show that the action occurred continually in the past. 

Past Perfect

The past perfect expresses a completed action from the past.

I had already seen him that morning.

As soon as my car had been repaired, I continued my trip.

The power had gone out by then.

This verb tense uses had, paired with a verb, to show that the verb is a completed action.

Past Perfect Progressive

The past perfect progressive expresses a continuous, completed action that had taken place in the past.

I had been listening to the radio when she dropped in.

The car had been running smoothly until the exhaust pipe fell off.

She realized she had been standing on his foot when he gently shoved her.

The past perfect progressive tense combines have/has with been and the past tense of the verb (listening, running, standing) to show that the action occurred continually in the past until the action was completed. 

Future Tenses

The future tense is used to express circumstances that will occur in the future. The future tense is different from the present and past tenses in that there is not usually a type of verb conjugation that shows the future tense. Instead, future verbs are formed by combining them with words like will or shall, or the phrase going to. The different future tenses are simple future, future progressive, future perfect, and future perfect progressive. 

Simple Future

The simple future expresses an action that will take place in the future.

Next week, her uncle will be in town.

Will you carry this bag for me?

To show that these actions take place in the future, the verbs are paired with will. 

Future Progressive

The future progressive expresses a continuous action which will take place in the future.

He will be conducting a meeting between noon and one o'clock every day this week.

Next summer, Jake will be traveling through South America.

To show that the action is continuous and in the future, the verbs are paired with will be, and to show that they are progressive, the main verb ends in -ing.

Future Perfect

The future perfect expresses a completed action that will have taken place in the future.

We will have finished cooking by the time you arrive.

Margaret will have dropped off her niece at the airport before meeting Joe.

In these examples, will and have are paired with the main verb to show readers that these actions will take place in the future, but will have already occurred.

Future Perfect Progressive

Lastly, the future perfect progressive tense expresses a continuous, completed action that will have taken place in the future.

I will have been exercising for hours by the time you wake up tomorrow.

When they arrive, they will have been traveling for 12 hours straight.

The verb has will to show that it takes place in the future, have been to show that it is completed, and an -ing verb to show that it is progressive or continuous.

Verb tense

The table shows how to correctly format verbs in a given tense. The "continuous" aspect is another name for the progressive aspect.

4.4.3: Verbal Aspect: Simple, Progressive, Perfect, and Perfect Progressive

"Aspect" refers to whether a verb is continuous, completed, both continuous and completed, or neither continuous nor completed.

Learning Objective

Identify the aspect of a verb

Key Points

Aspect gives us additional information about a verb by telling us whether the action was completed, continuous, neither, or both.

The simple aspect is for actions that are neither completed nor continuous.

The perfect aspect is for actions that are completed, but not continuous.

The progressive aspect is for actions that are continuous, but not completed.

The perfect progressive aspect is for actions that are both continuous and completed.

All verbs have both tense and aspect. Because there are three verb tenses and four verb aspects, there are twelve possible combinations of tense and aspect.

Key Terms

tense

A quality of verbs which indicates whether the verb occurred in the past, present, or future.

aspect

A quality of verbs which indicates whether the verb is continuous, completed, both of those, or neither.

Verb Aspect

We need tense to know if an event took place in the past, present, or future, but that's not all we need in order to know what happened. Aspect gives us additional information about a verb by telling us whether the action was completed, continuous, neither, or both.

"Aspect" refers to the flow of time. Does the action take place in a single block of time, does the action occur continuously, or is the action a repetitive occurrence? There are four main aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect progressive. 

Since all verbs have both tense and aspect, all combinations of tenses and aspects, such as past progressive and future perfect, are possible. Think about it this way: tense tells us when an action began, and aspect tells us whether that action was continuous, completed, or something else.

Simple

The simple aspect describes a general action, one that is neither continuous nor completed. It is usually used to describe an action that takes place habitually.

Simple Past

Verbs in simple past describe a normal or habitual action that began in the past,  and used to happen but no longer does.

June rode her bike to work every day that year.

You had a dog when you were young, right?

Simple Present

Verbs in simple present describe a habitual action that still occurs in the present.

My dad always enjoys novels about bakeries. 

Grandma drops me off at the bus stop every morning.

Simple Future

Verbs in simple future describe an action that will begin in the future, and occur with regularity or certainty. To describe an action that will happen in the future, precede your main verb with "will," "shall," or another word or phrase indicating that the action occurs in the future.

The sun will rise at 6:38 AM tomorrow. 

She will call you back after dinner.

Progressive

The progressive form expresses continuous actions that happen over a period of time. They almost always involve some combination of the verb "to be" paired with the main verb ending in -ing.

Past Progressive

Past progressive verbs express actions that began in the past and were continuous, but did not continue into the present. In the past progressive tense, the main verb is paired with the past tense of the verb "to be" (was/were) to show that the action occurred continually in the past. 

She was always saying stuff like that.

I was running late all morning. 

Present Progressive

Present progressive verbs express actions that are continuous, and are still happening at the present moment. In present progressive, the main verb is paired with the present tense of the verb "to be" (is/are) to show that the action is happening currently.

Phil is running around the block.

Are you enjoying your tacos? 

Future Progressive

Future progressive verbs express actions that will begin in the future and be continuous. In future progressive, the main verb is paired with the future tense of the verb "to be" (will be) to show that the action will begin in the future.

I will be heading home around nine o'clock.

He will be traveling around the Yukon later this year.

Perfect

The perfect form refers to events that have been completed, but are still relevant to the speaker in the present moment. It almost always involves some form of the verb "have" combined with another verb.

Past Perfect

Verbs in past perfect express an action that both began and was completed in the past. Use "had" paired with the main verb in simple past tense.

We had left before the stadium got crowded.

Don't worry, Emmett had already ruined the surprise.

Present Perfect

Verbs in present perfect express actions that began in the past, and have just now been completed. Use "has" or "have" paired with the main verb in simple past tense.

Omar has finished his dinner. 

Laura and Tomika have arranged the memorial.

Future Perfect

Verbs in future perfect express actions that will be completed in the future. Use "will have" paired with the main verb in simple past tense.

I hope you will have completed your report by then!

They will have won over half their games by the end of the season.

Perfect Progressive 

The perfect progressive, just as you would expect, is a combination of the perfect and progressive aspects. Perfect progressive refers to the completed portion of an ongoing action. It almost always involves a form of the verb "have" and a form of the verb "to be" combined with a verb ending in -ing.

Past Perfect Progressive

Verbs in past perfect progressive express a continuous, completed action that had taken place in the past. Use "had been" combined with the -ing form of the main verb.

She was tired because she had been running.

I had been lying awake for hours when the alarm went off. 

Present Perfect Progressive

Verbs in present perfect progressive express a continuous action that began in the past and continues into the present. Use "has been" or "have been" combined with the -ing form of the main verb.

He has been working on his paper all morning.

The librarians have been helping me with my research.

Future Perfect Progressive

Verbs in future perfect progressive express a continuous, completed action that will have taken place in the future. Use "will have been" combined with the -ing form of the main verb.

By the time the winter ends, we will have been getting a foot of snow every week.

This spring, I will have been working for Cool Stuff, Inc. for twenty years!

4.4.4: Verb Mood: Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative

Grammatical mood is a verb feature that allows speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying.

Learning Objective

Identify the mood of a verb

Key Points

Grammatical mood is a verb feature that allows writers to express their attitude toward what they are saying.

The most commonly used mood is the indicative mood, which is used to express factual statements. 

The subjunctive mood refers to hypothetical situations.

The imperative mood gives commands or makes requests. 

Key Terms

grammatical mood

A feature of verbs which expresses the speaker's attitude toward the subject.

imperative mood

Gives commands or makes requests.

indicative mood

Expresses factual statements. 

subjunctive mood

Expresses situations that are hypothetical or conditional. 

Grammatical mood allows speakers and writers to express their attitudes toward what they are saying (for example, whether it is intended as a statement of fact, of desire, or of command). In English, there are many grammatical moods, but by far the most common are the indicative, the imperative, the subjunctive, and the conditional.

You can change tense and aspect of a verb by changing something about the verb itself: For example, to make the verb "enjoy" past tense, you add -ed to the end. In English, mood is a little different. You don't change anything about the verb itself. Instead, you change the sentence structure to express a certain mood.

The Indicative Mood

In English, the indicative mood is the most commonly used. It is used to express factual statements. 

Atlanta is the capital of Georgia.

Penguins cannot fly.

Jebediah likes the beach. 

The Imperative Mood

The imperative mood expresses direct commands, prohibitions, and requests. In other words, it is used to tell someone to do something. In the imperative mood, the subject is almost always implied to be "you."

Do your homework now.

Please don't leave your bag there.

However, sometimes the subject can be implied to be "we."

Let's go!

Let's go

The imperative mood expresses direct commands and prohibitions. 

The Subjunctive Mood

The subjunctive mood is not commonly used in English. It is used for discussing imaginary or hypothetical events and situations, expressing opinions or emotions, or making polite requests. Usually, the subjunctive mood is used in a dependent clause. Subjunctive sentences are often of the following form: [Indicative verb phrase setting up a hypothetical scenario such as "I wish," "I believe," "I hope"] + [Subjunctive phrase describing hypothetical scenario].

I wish Paul would eat more healthfully. [Main clause "I wish" is factual and in indicative mood; dependent clause "Paul would eat" is hypothetical and in subjunctive mood.]

I suggest that we wait until after dinner to eat the cake. [Main clause "I suggest" is factual and in indicative mood; dependent clause "we wait until" is hypothetical and in subjunctive mood.]

The Conditional Mood

The conditional mood is used for speaking of an event whose completion depends on another event. In English, the conditional mood is usually of the form "would" + bare verb with no tense or aspect markers.

I would go swimming if it weren't so rainy.

He would bake more often if he had a better oven.

Attributions

Introduction to Verbs: Tense, Aspect, and Mood

"Perfect aspect." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_aspect. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Uses of English Verb Forms." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms%23Simple_future. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"direct object." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/direct%20object. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Gerund." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerund. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"tense." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tense. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Parts of Speech." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23Verbs. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Verb." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb%23Tense.2C_aspect.2C_and_modality. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15229/15229-h/15229-h.htm. Public domain.

Verb Tense: Past, Present, and Future

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Grammatical Tense." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Continuos and Progressive Aspects." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Grammatical Aspect." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspect. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"verb." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/verb. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"English in Use/Verbs." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Verbs%23Tenses. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"tense." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tense. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Verb Tense." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

Verbal Aspect: Simple, Progressive, Perfect, and Perfect Progressive

"Uses of English Verb Forms." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Grammatical aspect." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspect. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Tense-Aspect-Mood." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

Verb Mood: Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Grammatical mood." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"English in Use/Verbs." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Verbs%23Moods. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/39329/39329-h/39329-h.htm. Public domain.

4.5: Modifiers: Adjectives and Adverbs

4.5.1: Introduction to Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Learning Objective

Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs

Key Points

Adjectives describe, quantify, or identify pronouns and nouns.

Adjectives typically answer the questions how many?; How much?; What kind?; or Which one?

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Adverbs commonly describe how, when, or where the action of a verb took place.

Key Terms

adjectives

A part of speech that describes, quantifies, or identifies a noun or pronoun. 

adverb

A part of speech that describes, quantifies, or identifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb. 

Adjectives and Adverbs

Have you ever seen a photo of the Great Wall of China? It's simply enormous. It's incredibly long, snaking its stony way across the mountains and valleys of Asia, with beautiful towers standing tall every couple of hundred feet. But without modifiers, "the Great Wall"  would simply be "the Wall." We need adverbs and adjectives in order to be descriptive in our writing.

Adjectives, like "great," "enormous," "stony," "long," and "beautiful," modify nouns and pronouns. Adverbs, like "simply" and "incredibly," modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Great Wall of China

Without adjectives, "the Great Wall" would just be "the Wall."

Descriptive words can significantly improve your writing. They enhance the quality of information you provide, making your work more precise. However, you don't want to overwhelm your reader with unnecessary or excessive description. Try to strike a balance.

Adjectives

Adjectives describe, quantify, or identify pronouns and nouns. Remember, a noun is a person, place, or thing. Pronouns, such as I, me, we, he, she, it, you, and they, take the place of nouns. Adjectives also answer the following questions: What kind? How many? How much? Which one?

Descriptions concerning What kind? offer descriptive details about the noun or pronoun. It may describe physical characteristics or emotions. Here are a few examples: the black car, the angry customer, the fashionable teen. 

The questions How many? and How much? refer to quantity of the noun or pronoun being described by the adjective. Quantity can be specific (four ducks) or general (some ducks). Here are some more examples: fourteen cents, a few puppies, several kittens, a dozen books. 

Which one? specifically describes which object is being referred to. These are workhorse words like "this," "that," "these," and other words like "them": that car, this letter, those volunteers. 

Adjectives are helpful when additional description is needed for a noun or pronoun. Like adjectives, adverbs can also help add details to your writing. 

Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They commonly describe how, when, or where the action of a verb took place. How refers to the manner in which an action occurred. When addresses the time of the action. Where investigates the place or location the action took place. Here are some examples:

The boys ran loudly down the stairs. [How did the boys run? Loudly.]

We went down later. [When did we go? Later.]

He delivered pizza locally. [Where did he deliver? Locally.]

Adverbs can also be used to modify adjectives and other adverbs. 

The train leaves at a reasonably early hour. [The adverb reasonably modifies the adjective early.]

She spoke quite passionately about politics. [The adverb quite modifies the adverb passionately.]

Which Should You Use: Adjectives or Adverbs?

Writers often have a choice in wording a sentence to use either an adjective or an adverb:

Adjective: We had a quick lunch.

Adverb: We ate lunch quickly.  

So, how do you choose when to use an adjective and when to use an adverb? One way to choose is simply to figure out whether the word you want to modify is a noun or a verb. In the first sentence, you are describing the lunch; in the second sentence, you are describing the manner of eating.

A better approach, though, is not to think about the words you could modify but the information you want to convey. You do not need to describe every noun or verb—just the ones whose details are important to the sentence. If you want to emphasize the meal, you would pick the first sentence; if you want to emphasize the act of eating, you would pick the second.

Remember, adjectives and adverbs can be separated by which types of information they provide. Think about the details that are necessary to include, and then choose your modifiers accordingly.

4.5.2: Adjectives

Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns.

Learning Objective

Identify adjectives

Key Points

Adjectives are used to describe, quantify, or identify pronouns and nouns. 

They answer these questions: What kind? How many? How much? Which one?

Compound adjectives are used when two adjectives are needed to describe a noun.

Adjectives can be used to compare two different things. 

Key Terms

adjective

A word that modifies a noun or pronoun.

compound adjective

One word formed with two hyphenated words and used to describe a noun. 

Adjectives

Adjectives describe, quantify, or identify pronouns and nouns. They also answer the following questions: What kind? How many? How much? Which one?

Descriptions about "What kind?" add detail about the qualities of the noun or pronoun being described. This ranges from details regarding physical characteristics to emotional states. Here are some examples: the yellow dress, the sad clown, the smart pupil. 

Descriptions answering "How many?" and "How much?" specify the amount of whatever noun or pronoun you are modifying. Quantifying adjectives can be specific (ten candles, three hundred pages) or general (several minutes, a few people, some candy).

Descriptions answering "Which one?" confirm exactly which object the writer is referring to. Examples include phrases such as "that novel," "this writer," or "those students." Most adjectives that serve this purpose are called determiners or demonstrative pronouns.

Compound Adjectives

In some situations, two adjectives may be used to describe a noun. Sometimes these two adjectives remain separate, as two distinctive words describing the noun. But other times, the adjectives combine to become one adjective joined by a hyphen.

The phrase a heavy metal detector refers to a metal detector that is heavy in weight. Heavy and metal are separate adjectives describing the detector in this situation. 

The phrase a heavy-metal detector refers to a detector of heavy metals. Heavy-metal is the compound adjective describing the detector. 

As you can see, the hyphen completely changes the meaning of the phrase by combining two words into one. Here's another example:

The phrase man eating shark refers to a man who is eating a shark.

The phrase man-eating shark refers to a shark that eats men. 

Adjectives for Comparison

Adjectives are also used to compare items:

This year's graduating class was smaller than last year's class. 

This book is the best one we've read so far.

The standard form for using adjectives for comparison is to add -er to the end of an adjective being used to compare two items (brighter, cooler) and -est to the end of an adjective used to compare more than two items (brightest, coolest). However, some adjectives—for example, ones that are three or more syllables—like beautiful are changed to say "more beautiful" and "most beautiful" rather than adding these endings. 

Pronouns as Adjectives

Sometimes, pronouns can be used as adjectives. In addition to demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns like "his" or "their" can also identify specific objects within a set. For example:

Which car should we drive? We should drive her car. 

Whose house is closest? Your house is closest.

Prepositional Phrases as Adjectival Phrases

Prepositional phrases can act as adjectives, normally modifying the noun that precedes them.

Which books should we read? The books on the curriculum. 

Whose stories did we listen to in class? Those of the teacher.

Lastly, in addition to single words, you can use adjectival phrases. These are phrases that begin with an adjective but then have a noun that adds further detail, such as "full of toys" instead of just "full." They are most frequently used as a modifier placed right after a noun or as a predicate to a verb. For example, you could say "The child loved his bin full of toys," or "That bin is full of toys."

4.5.3: Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Learning Objective

Identify adverbs

Key Points

An adverb is used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Adverbs answer these questions: When did something happen? How often did it occur? How was the action performed? Where did it take place?

Sometimes, adverbs and adjectives are hyphenated to better describe a noun. 

Key Term

adverb

A part of speech which modifies verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

Adverbs

Just as adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. How slimy was that swamp? Extremely slimy. How did she run? She ran quickly. How quickly did she run? Very quickly.

Adverbs are used to answer how, when, and where an action took place. More specifically, consider: When did something happen? How often did it occur? How was the action performed? Where did it take place? Let's explore some examples:

Describing when: The last time I went shopping was a while ago. 

Describing how often: I visit my friends frequently. 

Describing how: He ran quickly in the race. 

Describing where: She sat down nearby.

Many adjectives can be made into adverbs simply by adding -ly to the end. However, there are other adverbs that do not end in -ly: very, quite, somewhat, most, least, and many others.

Prepositional Phrases as Adverbs

You can use prepositional phrases as adverbs if they modify a verb, adjective, or adverb. For example:

Don't judge a book by its cover. [The phrase "by its cover" describes the verb "judge."]

I am tired of this diet. ["Of this diet" describes the adjective "tired."]

The Hyphenated Adverb

Hyphens can be used to combine an adverb and adjective to describe a noun. In this situation, the adverb is describing the adjective, and the adjective is describing the noun. However, when the adverb ends with -ly, a hyphen should not be used. Let's review some examples.

beautiful-looking flowers

best-known author

well-rounded student

best-paid job

If the hyphen was removed from any of these examples the phrase would take on a different meaning. For example, "best-known author" describes the author who is known the best, whereas "best known author" would describe an author who is, separately, both best and known. The hyphen is what makes sure that "best" describes "known" rather than "author."

4.5.4: Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

A modifier is a word or group of words that describes another word or group of words.

Learning Objective

Identify incorrectly used modifiers

Key Points

A modifier is a word or phrase that describes, limits, or qualifies another word.

Adjectives and adverbs are two types of modifiers as they are used to describe other words. 

It is important to use modifiers correctly so readers understand your intended meaning.  

Incorrect modifiers come in the form of dangling modifiers, misplaced modifiers, and squinting modifiers. 

The best way to fix an incorrect modifier is to restructure the sentence. 

Key Terms

modifier

A word or phrase that describes, limits, or qualifies the sense of another word or phrase.

misplaced modifier

Occurs when it is unclear what word or words a modifier is referencing. 

squinting modifier

A word that is placed right next to the word it refers to, but is also near another word that it might be modifying.

dangling modifier

An error in the sentence in which a modifier is associated with a word or phrase that it is not supposed to describe. 

Modifiers

A modifier is a word or phrase that describes another word or phrase. Two common types of modifiers are the adverb (a word that describes an adjective, a verb, or another adverb) and the adjective (a word that describes a noun or pronoun). However, though all adjectives and adverbs are modifiers, not all modifiers are adjectives and adverbs. Many modifiers are entire phrases. For example:

Responsible for representing students to the faculty and overseeing student organizations, the Student Council plays an important role in campus life. 

The modifying phrase (in italics) provides additional information about the subject of the sentence: the Student Council.

Clarity with Modifiers

Above all, it should always be clear to the reader which word an adjective, adverb, or modifying phrase is describing. By paying attention to placement and making sure that if you want to modify a verb you use an adverb instead of an adjective, you will make it much easier for your reader to pick up on your intended meaning. In situations where modifiers are used incorrectly, the result is a dangling modifier, a misplaced modifier, or a squinting modifier. 

Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier occurs when the modifying phrase is too far away from the word it is supposed to describe. As a result, the modifier appears to refer to something else, causing confusion for the reader. Dangling modifiers can be corrected by restructuring the sentence. For example:

Giant Illustration?

Dangling: Covering most of Minnesota, the illustration showed the glacier created thousands of lakes. [This phrasing makes it seem like the illustration covers most of Minnesota!]

Corrected: Covering most of Minnesota, the glacier created thousands of lakes, as depicted on the illustration. [Here, the modifying phrase clearly refers to glacier as it is intended.]

Walking Winds?

Dangling: Walking across the desert, fierce winds swirled around the riders. [Here, the dangling modifier makes it seem like the winds are walking across the desert!]

Corrected: Fierce winds swirled around the riders as they walked across the desert. [The sentence has been rephrased so that the riders are the ones walking across the desert.]

Strolling Squirrels?

Dangling: Strolling through the park, the squirrels scampered across our feet. [This dangling modifier makes it sound like the squirrels are enjoying a nice stroll in the park!]

Corrected: As we strolled through the park, squirrels scampered across our feet. [The sentence has been clarified so that the speaker and his companion are the ones who are strolling.]

Misplaced Modifiers

Similar to a dangling modifier, a misplaced modifier occurs when it is unclear what word(s) the modifier is referencing. Most misplaced modifiers can be corrected by placing the modifying phrase next to the subject it refers to. For example:

Hurt Bicycle

Misplaced: Erik couldn't ride his bicycle with a broken leg. [Here, it sounds like the bicycle has a broken leg!]

Corrected: With his broken leg, Eric couldn't ride his bike. [Now that the modifier is in the right place, the sentence makes it clear that Eric is the one with a broken leg.]

Ballerina Dog

Misplaced: The little girl walked the dog wearing a tutu. [Is she walking a dog that is wearing a tutu?]

Corrected: Still wearing a tutu, the little girl walked the dog. [No, the young lady is the one in the tutu!]

Squinting Modifiers

A squinting modifier is a modifier that is placed right next to the word it refers to, but is also near another word that it might be modifying. This can also be corrected by restructuring the sentence. For example:

A Great Exercise

Squinting: Cycling uphill quickly strengthens the leg muscles. [Here, "quickly" could modify either "cycling uphill" or "strengthens the leg muscles."]

Corrected: Quickly cycling uphill strengthens the leg muscles. [Now it's clear that it's the cycling that has to be quick!]

Peter, I'm Sure We Could Find You a Chair

Misplaced: Peter ate the pie sitting on the windowsill. [Is Peter sitting on a windowsill or is the pie?]

Corrected: Peter ate the pie that was sitting on the windowsill. [It was the pie.]

Dangling

To avoid dangling and misplaced modifiers in your writing, make sure the word or phrase being modified is clearly identified.

Attributions

Introduction to Adjectives and Adverbs

"Adverb." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverb. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Adjective." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"DirectDepositAuthorization.jpg." https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20090529_Great_Wall_8216.jpg. Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0.

Adjectives

"adjectival phrase." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/adjectival%20phrase. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"adjective." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adjective. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Compound Modifier." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_modifier. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"adverb." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adverb. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Parts of Speech." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23Adjectives. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Parts of Speech." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23Adverbs. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

Adverbs

"Adverb." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverb. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"dangling modifier." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/dangling%20modifier. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"modifier." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/modifier. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Dangling modifier." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Dangling_modifier. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Statue of man dangling | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/vironevaeh/2703259723/. Flickr CC BY-SA 2.0.

4.6: Conjunctions

4.6.1: Conjunctions: Coordination, Correlation, Conjunction, and Subordination

A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words or phrases. 

Learning Objective

Choose the correct conjunction to connect two clauses

Key Points

A conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses. 

Conjunctions help add variety to your writing because they can be used to create  sentences with different styles and meanings. 

The different kinds of conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs.

Key Terms

coordinating conjunction

A word that joins words and phrases of equal syntactic importance.

conjunction

A part of speech that connects words or phrases. 

subordinating conjunction

A word that joins together the separate sections of a complex sentence.

In English grammar, a conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses. There are several different types of conjunctions. 

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join, or "coordinate," two or more items (such as words, clauses, or sentences) of equal importance. The major coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. (You can use the acronym FANBOYS to remember these!) The most common coordinating conjunctions out of these are and, or, and but. 

And

"And" connects non-contrasting items or ideas:

They want hamburgers and hot dogs.

She likes swimming at the pool and in the river.

I will go to the grocery store and pick up the kids.

Or

"Or" presents an alternative item or idea.

They want either hamburgers or hot dogs.

She likes swimming at the pool or in the river depending on how hot it is.

I will either go to the grocery store or pick up the kids.

But

"But" presents a contrast or exception.

They want hamburgers, but not hot dogs.

She likes swimming at the pool, but not in the river.

I will go to the grocery store, but I won't pick up the kids.

Nor

"Nor" presents a non-contrasting negative idea.

They want neither hamburgers nor hot dogs.

She doesn't like swimming at the pool, nor in the river.

I will neither go to the grocery store nor pick up the kids.

Yet

"Yet" presents a contrast or exception (usually, one more surprising than "but").

They want hamburgers, yet they don't want hot dogs.

She likes swimming at the pool, yet not in the river.

I can go to the grocery store, and yet I somehow don't have time to pick up the kids.

So

"So" presents a consequence.

They ate hamburgers, so they're too full for hot dogs.

She likes swimming at the pool so she doesn't have to drive to the river.

I am going to the grocery store, so I can pick up the kids on the way home.

For

"For" presents a rationale.

They want hamburgers, for they are hungry.

She likes swimming at the pool, for she wants to stay cool.

I will go to the grocery store, for we need to buy ingredients.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join two separate clauses. The most common subordinating conjunctions in the English language include after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, even if, even though, every time, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, and while.

Joe went to the store because he needed some orange juice.

After the movie is over, we can have dinner at my house.

He likes horses, even though a pony bit him once.

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs in order to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence. There are many pairs of correlative conjunctions, including: either/or; not only / but also; neither/nor; both/and; whether/or. 

You either do your work or prepare for a trip to the office.

Not only is he handsome, but he is also brilliant.

Neither the basketball team nor the football team is doing well.

Both the cross-country team and the swimming team are doing well.

Whether you stay or go is your decision. 

Not only is the Sphinx in the picture, but the Pyramids are too.

The title contains an example of a correlative conjunction: "not only ... but also." A correlative conjunction is just one type of conjunction, which is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses. Conjunctions can assist in creating sentences of various styles and emphases.

Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs express a relationship or transition between two separate parts of a complex sentence. Common conjunctive adverbs include so, otherwise, also, consequently, for example, furthermore, however, in addition, in contrast, in fact, instead, likewise, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, still, then, and therefore. For example:

The CEO will be attending the lecture; accordingly, the vice president will be available for the luncheon at noon.

Jaime wanted to see Billy Madison; however, Nick wanted to see Happy Gilmore.

Attributions

Conjunctions: Coordination, Correlation, Conjunction, and Subordination

"Coordination (linguistics)." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_(linguistics). Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Coordinating and Subordinating Conjunctions." http://valenciacommunicationscenter.wikispaces.com/Coordinating+and+Subordinating+Conjunctions. valenciacommunicationscenter Wikispace CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Subordinate conjunction." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subordinate%20conjunction. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"coordinator." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/coordinator. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Conjunction (grammar)." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar). Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Subordination (linguistics)." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subordination_(linguistics). Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Punctuation." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Punctuation%23OK.2C_which_terms_do_I_need_to_know.3F. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"coordinating conjunction." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/coordinating%20conjunction. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/29507/29507-h/29507-h.htm. Public domain.

4.7: Agreement and Parallelism

4.7.1: Subject-Verb Agreement

Verbs need to agree with the subject in both person and number.

Learning Objective

Recognize errors in subject-verb agreement

Key Points

Verbs must agree with their subject in person and number.

A first-person subject is I or we. Second person is you or you all. Third person is she, he, it, or they.

A singular subject is a subject where there is only one person or thing; a plural subject is more than one person or thing.

It's good to double-check whether your verb agrees with your subject, as there are situations where it may be unclear.

Key Terms

collective noun

A number of people or things taken together and spoken of as a whole.

mass noun

A thing or concept usually referred to as a whole, rather than counted individually (e.g. advice or water).

plural

More than one in number.

verb

A word that indicates an action, an event, or a state of being.

Subject-Verb Agreement

In order for sentences to sound right, their verbs and subjects need to mesh well together. Since the subject is the one performing the action, the verb needs to match it in person and number.

"Person" is a way of saying who the subject is. There are three levels of "person" in English: first person, second person, and third person. To put it simply: In first person, the subject is I or we. Second person is you or you all. Third person is she, he, it, or they.

"Number" is a way of saying how many people (or objects) are in the subject. If only one person is in the subject, it's singular. Otherwise, it's plural.

Thus, a subject has both person and number, and the verb takes on the appropriate form. Take the examples below:

Singular first person: I work.

Singular second person: You work.

Singular third person: He works.

Plural first person: We work.

Plural second person: You work.

Plural third person: They work.

The verb "work" has two different forms, "work" and "works," depending on the subject. 

Unusual Situations

As clear as this all seems, some situations are a bit trickier than others. For example, take an irregular verb like "be."

Singular first person: I am.

Singular second person: You are.

Singular third person: He is.

Plural first person: We are.

Plural second person: You are.

Plural third person: They are.

This verb is highly irregular, and so it can be trickier to make sure that the subject and verb match in tense and number.

This is not the only unusual situation, however. Subject-verb agreement can become a little more complicated when the subject is very long and complex. When faced with situations like these, it is generally best to consider the entire complex subject phrase as one subject, and then think about what kind of thing it represents.

Compound Sentences

Compound sentences (two sentences joined by a clause) have a subject and verb in each clause. Make sure the subject of each clause agrees with the verb of each clause.

The peanut butter is on the counter and the beans are in the bag.

The children have a snow day, so I am going home early.

Modifying Phrases

Sometimes modifying phrases can come between the subject and verb of a sentence. This should not affect the subject-verb agreement.

The idea of serving frankfurters is a good one.

The children, along with their father, are taking a cab to the station.

Verb Precedes Subject

Sometimes the subject of a sentence can come after its verb. Even in these cases, the verb should still agree with the subject.

Where are the candles for the cake?

There is a quiet spot by the pond.

Compound Subjects

Compound subjects (two subjects joined by a conjunction) take plural verbs if they are joined by "and." Think of it this way: you've got more than one subject, so your verb has to be plural. 

The president and the children are at the party.

My brothers and I are at the party.

Positive and Negative Subjects

When a positive subject and a negative subject are compounded and have different numbers, the verb should agree with the positive subject.

It is not the assistant coaches but the head coach who calls the plays.

It is the soup, but not the appetizers, that has poisoned the queen.

Or

When two nouns differing in number are joined by the word "or," the verb should take the form of the noun closest to it. For example:

Most viewers of the painting assume that either the monkey's antics or the handler's chagrin causes the young men's laughter.

"Chagrin" is closer to the verb than "antics," so the verb "causes" takes the singular form. Note that this is the case specifically because of the word "or."

Indefinite Pronouns

Five indefinite pronouns always take plural verbs: others, both, many, few, and several.

Both are arriving at the same time.

Many people love parties.

However, most indefinite pronouns take singular verbs.

Everybody is at the party.

Either restaurant sounds good.

Some indefinite pronouns can take a singular or plural verb based on whether the noun to which they are referring is uncountable (singular) or countable (plural).

Some (sand) is in my shoe.

Some (pebbles) are in my shoe.

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns (which refer to a group of beings or things as a single unit) are singular, and so take singular verbs.

The audience was silent at the end of the play.

The class has plenty of homework for the weekend.

Mass Nouns

Mass nouns, like "water" or "mud" are neither singular nor plural. You can't say "one water" or "two waters" because it's all just a continuous object (unless you are talking about two distinct containers of water). Mass nouns represent a generic, unknown amount of whatever they are. They take a singular verb form.

My baggage was left at the airport. [The subject baggage is a mass noun, so the verb was is singular.] 

My bags were left at the airport. [The subject bags is a plural noun, so the verb were is also plural to agree with the subject.]

Amounts

Amounts take singular verbs because they are treated as units, which are singular nouns.

Ten dollars is enough to buy the book.

All I need is fifteen minutes to finish the exam.

Some non-amount words end in "s" but also take singular verbs because they refer to units or single entities.

Economics is an interesting subject.

The news airs at six o'clock.

Pair Words

Some words ending in "s" refer to single objects but are considered plural and so should take plural verbs, unless they are preceded by "pair of" (in which case "pair" would be the subject).

Your shoes are bright yellow.

My favorite pair of pants is in the wash.

Titles

The title of a book or work of art is always singular even if a noun in the title is plural.

The Three Musketeers is sitting on the shelf by the window.

Sums and products take singular verbs in mathematical equations. Fractional expressions vary depending on the meaning.

Three plus four equals seven.

Three-fourths of the professors vote Republican.

The child stands near the door.

The title demonstrates the necessity of subject-verb agreement. The third person subject, "The child," requires that the verb also take a third person singular form, "stands."

Revising

Most of the time, writers use subject-verb agreement automatically. Most of us are so used to doing it that we do not need to think about the rule in order to follow it. Nevertheless, you should be aware of subject-verb agreement when editing your papers, especially if they have gone through many revisions. This is one thing writers may forget to edit. Most mistakes happen because writers are not paying careful attention to the number and person of their subjects. 

To figure out which noun the verb should agree with, begin by crossing out any prepositional phrases or other descriptive clauses. Then focus on the verb and ask yourself, "Who or what is performing this action?" Pare it down to just a subject and verb, and see if it sounds right. Writers need to consider whether the subject of the sentence is singular or plural, and whether the subject is first person, second person, or third person. Once this has been determined, the correct conjugation of the verb can be used. 

4.7.2: Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

All pronouns must agree with their antecedent in number and gender.

Learning Objective

Recognize errors in pronoun-antecedent agreement

Key Points

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun or a group of nouns in a sentence. 

A pronoun should agree in number and gender with the noun or phrase it refers to.

The noun or phrase a pronoun refers to is called the antecedent.

Using proper pronoun-antecedent agreement is important to properly expressing your ideas in writing. 

Key Terms

pronoun

A word that replaces a noun or group of nouns in a sentence.

antecedent

A noun or noun phrase to which a pronoun refers. 

Pronouns and Antecedents

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun, or a group of nouns, in a sentence or sentences. A pronoun should agree in number and gender with the noun or phrase it refers to, which is known as the antecedent. Correct pronoun-antecedent agreement is crucial to writing professionally. 

A pronoun might have an antecedent from the previous sentence:

Carolina hates cats. She has terrible allergies. [The pronoun she refers to the antecedent Carolina.]

But pronouns and antecedents can also occur in the same sentence:

Jim said he doesn't like coffee. [The pronoun he refers to the antecedent Jim.]

The twins helped by bringing their truck. [The pronoun their refers to the antecedent twins.]

Quantity Agreement

"Singular" means "one of something," whereas "plural" means "more than one." The singular pronouns include I, me, he, she, it, and more. Their antecedent will always be singular: just one person or object.

Jamil was not as hungry. He stayed at the office. [The singular pronoun he refers to the antecedent Jamil.]

Examples of plural pronouns include we, us, they, and others. These pronouns must have an antecedent that is more than one person or object.

George, Omar, and Phil were starving for lunch. They went to a Chinese buffet. [The plural pronoun they refers to the antecedent George, Omar, and Phil.] 

One tricky exception is "you." In English, the pronoun "you" is the same whether it is singular or plural. Sometimes you can distinguish between the two by saying "you all" if you are speaking to more than one person. 

Gender Agreement

In some situations, pronouns need to be gender specific. The pronouns he, his, and him are masculine, whereas she, her, and hers are feminine. 

Janice wanted to go to the mall. She wanted Scott to join her. He was not interested in going to the mall. [The pronouns she and her refer to the antecedent Janice. The pronoun he refers to the antecedent Scott.] 

My dog Franklin is very skittish. He doesn't enjoy the dog park. [The pronoun he refers to the antecedent Franklin.]

Gender-Neutral Pronouns

Gender-neutral pronouns include you, they, their, theirs, we, us, our, ours, your, and yours. In the case where the gender of the antecedent is unknown, the pronoun should be gender-neutral or avoided altogether. 

For example, take the general statement, "A student should hand his papers in promptly." In this sentence, the word student does not indicate any gender, because it's just a general, anonymous student. Therefore, rather than saying "his papers," use one of the following:

A student should hand papers in promptly. [Here, the gendered pronoun has been dropped, but the sentence is still grammatically correct.]

Students should hand their papers in promptly. [By making the antecedent plural, you can use the gender-neutral plural pronoun their.]

4.7.3: Structural Parallelism Within a Sentence

Parallelism requires that similar ideas be presented in similar form.

Learning Objective

Give examples of parallel structure

Key Points

Parallelism is when two or more elements of the same sentence have a similar structure.

The most important parallel markers are the three most common conjunctions: and, but, and or.

Parallelism requires that an article (a, an, or the) or a preposition applying to all members of a series must either appear before the first item only or be repeated before each item.

Key Term

parallelism

When two or more elements of the same sentence have a similar structure.

Parallelism

An unclear sentence rambles, drifting among unrelated topics in a haphazard and confusing fashion. Parallelism helps promote balance, emphasis, clarity, and readability. But what is parallelism?

Parallelism is when elements of a sentence "echo" each other because they have similar form or structure. Repeating key words can contribute to unity within an essay. Parallelism can be useful in many situations, but often we know that it will come in handy when we use words that link or contrast items, such as and, or, and but. 

Basic Form of Parallelism

Nonparallel: Students spend their time going to classes, studying, working, and they wish they had time for a social life.

Parallel: Students spend their time going to classes, studying, working, and wishing for a social life.

Nonparallel: High-school students hope for short school days, or four-day weeks would be great, too.

Parallel: High-school students hope for short school days or four-day weeks.

Using Articles with Parallelism 

Parallelism requires that an article (a, an, or the) or a preposition applying to all items in a list either appear before the first item only or be repeated before each item. Here are a few examples of the rule in action:

Nonparallel: We can pay with a mark, a yen, buck, or pound.

Parallel: We can pay with a mark, a yen, a buck, or a pound.

Nonparallel: I went to the store on Monday, Wednesday, and on Friday.

Parallel: I went to the store on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday.

Prepositions in Parallelism

Some words require that certain prepositions precede them. When such words appear in parallel structure, it is important to include all of the appropriate prepositions, since the first one may not apply to the whole series of items. Here are a few examples of the rule in action:

Nonparallel: His speech was marked by disagreement and scorn for his opponent's position.

Parallel: His speech was marked by disagreement with and scorn for his opponent's position.

Nonparallel: This is a time not for words but action.

Parallel: This is a time not for words but for action.

Correlative Expressions

Correlative expressions are words that tend to show up in pairs. Sentences with correlative expressions (both/and; not/but; not only / but also; either/or; first, second, third ...) should employ parallel structure as well. Simple rewriting can often remedy errors in these types of sentences. Here are a few examples of the rule in action:

Nonparallel: Either you must grant her request or incur her ill will.

Parallel: You must either grant her request or incur her ill will.

Nonparallel: My objections are first, the injustice of the measure, and second, that it is unconstitutional.

Parallel: My objections are first, that the measure is unjust, and second, that it is unconstitutional.

Using Logic to Determine Structure

In some instances, you must figure out which parts of the sentence are parallel in meaning before making them parallel in structure. Here is an example:

Correct: Sal applied himself in his new job, arriving early every day, skipping lunch regularly, and leaving late every night.

In the sentence above, the -ing participle phrases ("arriving early every day," "skipping lunch regularly," and "leaving late every night") are parallel. The main clause—"applied himself in his new job"—is not parallel to these participle phrases. This is because the main verb is "applied." The -ing phrases simply provide additional information about how Sal applied himself. It would distort the meaning to change the sentence to this superficially parallel version:

Incorrect: Sal applied himself in his new job, arrived early every day, skipped lunch regularly, and left late every night.

This version gives all the activities equal emphasis, instead of making the last three activities subordinate to the main activity ("applied himself in his new job").

Attributions

Subject-Verb Agreement

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"collective noun." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/collective%20noun. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"verb." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/verb. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Joffre Meyer, Subject-Verb Agreement. September 17, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m34353/latest/. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.

"English in Use/Subject-verb Agreement." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Subject-verb_Agreement. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Mass Noun." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mass_noun. Wikitionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"plural." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plural. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Lack of agreement between subject and verb." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23Verbs. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/28024/28024-h/28024-h.html. Public domain.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"pronoun." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pronoun. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"antecedent." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/antecedent. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Parts of Speech." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23Pronouns. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

Structural Parallelism Within a Sentence

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Parallelism." http://xiamenwriting.wikispaces.com/Parallelism. xiamenwriting Wikispace CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Parallelism." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallelism. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"parallel structure." https://writingguide.wikispaces.com/parallel+structure. writingguide Wikispace CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/The Stages of the Writing Process." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/28501/28501-h/28501-h.htm. Public domain.

5: Overview of English Grammar: Punctuation and Mechanics

5.1: Commas

5.1.1: Introduction to Commas

The comma is a punctuation mark that indicates a slight break, pause, or transition.

Learning Objective

Identify situations that require commas

Key Points

The comma is a punctuation mark that indicates a slight break, pause, or transition.

Commas are necessary before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) that separates two independent clauses.

Commas are necessary after introductory words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence.

Commas are necessary to set off elements that interrupt or add information in a sentence.

Key Terms

participle

A form of a verb that may function as an adjective or noun. English has two types of participles: the present participle and the past participle.

preposition

Any of a closed class of non-inflecting words typically employed to connect a noun or a pronoun, in an adjectival or adverbial sense, with some other word: a particle used with a noun or pronoun (in English always in the objective case) to make a phrase limiting some other word.

adverb

A word that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, or various other types of words, phrases, or clauses.

adjective

A word that modifies a noun or describes a noun's referent.

infinitive

The uninflected form of a verb. In English, this is usually formed with the verb stem preceded by "to." For Example: "to sit."

nonrestrictive

Describes a modifier that can be dropped from a sentence without changing the meaning. 

The comma is a punctuation mark that indicates a slight pause or a transition of some kind. It serves many different grammatical functions and provides clarity for readers. Commas have many uses, but the situations in which they are used can be broken down into four major categories: 

Put a comma before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) that separates two independent clauses.

Put a comma after introductory words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence.

Use commas to set off elements that interrupt or add information in a sentence.

Use commas to visually separate distinct but related items.

Coordinating Conjunctions 

Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions, or joining words, that are placed between words and phrases of equal importance. Used with coordinating conjunctions, commas allow writers to express how their complete thoughts relate to one another. They also help avoid the choppy, flat style that arises when every thought stands as a separate sentence. 

When joining two independent clauses, or clauses that could stand on their own as full sentences, place a comma before the conjunction. If the second independent clause is very short, or if it is an imperative, the comma can be omitted. 

Example: He was looking forward to the dance, but he was not sure what he would wear.

Both clauses are independent and could stand on their own as complete sentences. When they are joined in the same sentence, however, they must be connected with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Introductory Phrases and Clauses

Put a comma after introductory words, phrases, or clauses that introduce a sentence.

Dependent Clauses

A dependent clause is a group of words that can't stand on its own as a sentence because it does not express a complete thought. Sometimes a dependent clause can be used to introduce a sentence. In this situation, use a comma after the dependent clause. 

Example: Because I was running late, I did not have time to eat breakfast.

The first phrase could not stand on its own as a sentence, but when joined to the independent clause by the comma, the sentence is complete. 

Note that a dependent clause can come later in the sentence, but in that case, you would not use a comma:

Example: I did not have time to eat breakfast because I was running late.

Only use a comma to separate a dependent and independent clause if the dependent clause is first!

Introductory Words and Phrases

Writers can give readers information that limits or otherwise modifies a main idea that follows. To do so, writers can use introductory words or introductory phrases. These introductory elements can be one word or several. Common introductory elements include transition words and statements about time, place, manner, or condition. 

Often, introductory words are also adverbs. Commas are always used to set off certain adverbs, including the following:

however

in fact

therefore

nevertheless

moreover

furthermore

still

Example: Therefore, it is obvious that we should fund the dam-building project.

If one of these adverbs appears in the middle of a sentence, within one clause, it should be set off by a pair of commas. 

Example: The dam, however, will take seven years to construct.

For some adverbs, using a comma is optional. In these situations, say the sentence to yourself. If you think a pause makes your sentence more clear or emphasizes what you want to emphasize, use the comma; otherwise, drop it.

then

so

yet

instead

too

first, second, etc.

Example: First we'll go to the mall. Then we'll go to the pet store.

Example: First, we'll go to the mall. Then, we'll go to the pet store.

Both of those sentence pairs are correct!

Adding Information: Modifiers and Appositives

Modifiers are words or phrases that are added to sentences in order to make their meaning more specific. In order to understand what kind of modifiers require commas, first we have to understand the concept of "restrictiveness."

Nonrestrictive Modifiers

Some modifiers are nonrestrictive, meaning that the sentence would still have essentially the same meaning, topic, and structure without them. They simply add a little extra information. 

Example: Katy's new fishbowl is growing some weird algae.

In this sentence, "new" and "weird" are nonrestrictive. The sentence without them would be grammatically correct and have essentially the same meaning. They do not require any commas.

Restrictive Modifiers

Restrictive modifiers, on the other hand, are those whose use is essential to the overall meaning of the sentence. In other words, if you dropped a restrictive modifier from a sentence, the meaning of the sentence would change.

Example: The man who scratched your car left a note on your windshield.

The phrase "who scratched your car" is a restrictive modifier because it explains which man the sentence refers to,  and because the sentence would be unclear without it.

Appositives

An appositive is a grammatical construction in which two noun phrases are placed side by side, with one identifying the other.

Example: My sister, Alice Smith, likes jelly beans.

In this sentence, "Alice Smith" is an appositive modifying the noun phrase "my sister." Because the name Alice Smith is just adding information, and the sentence would still have the same basic meaning without it, this is an example of a nonrestrictive appositive. Nonrestrictive appositives do require commas.

On the other hand, a restrictive appositive provides information essential to identifying the noun being described. It limits or clarifies that noun phrase in some crucial way, and the meaning of the sentence would change if the appositive were removed. In English, restrictive appositives are not set off by commas.

Example: He loves the television show Iron Chef.

In this sentence, "Iron Chef" is an appositive modifying the noun phrase "television show." Because the meaning of the sentence would be unclear without "Iron Chef," it is considered restrictive and thus does not require a comma.

Separating Related But Distinct Information

Attribution

Use a comma to set off the attribution (i.e., who said or wrote a quotation) from the quotation itself. If the attribution comes at the end of the quotation, then the comma should go inside the quotation marks, even if the quotation is a complete sentence.

Example: "We really messed up this time," he said.

A pair of commas should be used to set off the attribution when it appears in the middle of the quotation.

Example: "Well," she said, "I think I would prefer to have hamburgers tonight." 

Do not replace a question mark or exclamation point in a quotation with a comma. 

Example: "Where are we going now?" Eugene asked.

Lists 

When there are three or more items in a list, commas should be used between the items.

Example: Buy apples, bananas, and grapefruit at the store.

The final comma, the one before and or or, is known as a serial comma (also called the Oxford or Harvard comma). The serial comma should always be used where it is needed to avoid confusion. Can you see the ambiguity in the example below?

Example: "Thank you for the award. I'd like to thank my parents, Charles Darwin and Lindsay Lohan."

It looks like the speaker's parents are Darwin and Lohan, when in reality, the speaker meant to thank her parents and Charles Darwin and Lindsay Lohan. In this situation, the serial comma needs to be used.

Otherwise, depending on the chosen style guide, it is considered optional. Still, not using the serial comma is relatively uncommon in American English, except in newspapers and magazines.

Accumulation

Another type of relationship between ideas that writers signal to readers with a comma is that of accumulation. Occurring at the end of a sentence, cumulative clauses hook up to a main clause and add further information. They often include additional descriptive details. 

Example, "The sun rose slowly over the mountains, warming the faces of the miners in the valley, inviting the jays out from their nests, shimmering in the morning dew, inching the day forward one shadow at a time." 

As in this example, accumulative phrases should be separated by commas.

Dates

Commas should also be used when writing dates. There should always be a comma between the day and the year and between the year and the rest of the sentence. 

Example: "On December 7, 1941, Japanese planes attacked the U.S. Naval base in Hawaii." 

Even when the date is not a dependent clause, as it is in the previous example, the last item in the date should be followed by a comma. 

Calling in sick for work, Beth hoped her boss would not suspect anything

The title contains a verb in its introductory phrase, which warrants a comma before the final clause. The comma serves a variety of grammatical functions, including to indicate pauses or set off introductory phrases, as in the title example.

5.1.2: Common Comma Mistakes

By understanding the rules of correct comma usage, you can avoid common comma errors.

Learning Objective

Recognize common mistakes when using commas

Key Points

Avoiding unnecessary commas is simply a matter of understanding the rules of correct comma usage.

A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined only by a comma instead of an acceptable form of punctuation, such as a comma with a coordinating conjunction, a semicolon, or a period.

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses fuse together without punctuation to separate them.

Key Terms

preposition

Any of a closed class of non-inflecting words typically employed to connect a noun or a pronoun, in an adjectival or adverbial sense, with some other word: a particle used with a noun or pronoun (in English always in the objective case) to make a phrase limiting some other word.

participle

A form of a verb that may function as an adjective or noun. English has two types of participles: the present participle and the past participle.

comma

Punctuation mark, usually indicating a pause between parts of a sentence or between elements in a list.

Rules of Thumb

Comma usage errors fall into two categories: using unnecessary commas and failing to use necessary commas. To avoid making errors when using commas in your writing, you must understand when commas belong (and when they don't).

Keep the following rules of thumb in mind for when to not use commas.

Do not use a comma to separate a subject from its predicate. 

Incorrect: Registering for our fitness programs before September 15, will save you thirty percent of the membership cost.

Correct: Registering for our fitness programs before September 15 will save you thirty percent of the membership cost.

Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its object, or a preposition from its object. 

Incorrect: I hope to mail to you before Christmas, a current snapshot of my dog Benji.

Incorrect: She traveled around the world with, a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup tent, and a camera.

Correct: I hope to mail to you before Christmas a current snapshot of my dog Benji.

Correct: She traveled around the world with a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup tent, and a camera.

Do not misuse a comma after a coordinating conjunction. 

Incorrect: Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof but, the family was used to the noise and paid it no attention.

Correct: Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof, but the family was used to the noise and paid it no attention.

Do not use commas to introduce restrictive (i.e., necessary) modifiers. 

Incorrect: The fingers, on his left hand, are bigger than those on his right.

Correct: The fingers on his left hand are bigger than those on his right.

Do not use a comma before a dependent clause that comes after an independent clause. This is called a disruptive comma. 

Incorrect: The future of print newspapers appears uncertain, due to rising production costs and the increasing popularity of online news sources.

Incorrect: Some argue that print newspapers will never disappear, because of their many readers.

Correct: The future of print newspapers appears uncertain due to rising production costs and the increasing popularity of online news sources.

Correct: Some argue that print newspapers will never disappear because of their many readers.

Do not use a comma after a short introductory prepositional phrase unless you mean to add extra emphasis. 

Incorrect: Before the parade, I want to eat pizza.

Correct: Before the parade I want to eat pizza.

Do not use a comma between adjectives that work together to modify a noun. 

Incorrect: I like your dancing, cat t-shirt.

Correct: I like your dancing cat t-shirt.

Do not use a comma to set off quotations that occupy a subordinate position in a sentence, often signaled by the words "that," "which," or "because." 

Incorrect: Participating in a democracy takes a strong stomach because, "it requires a certain relish for confusion," writes Molly Ivins.

Correct: Participating in a democracy takes a strong stomach because "it requires a certain relish for confusion," writes Molly Ivins.

Do not use a comma when naming only a month and a year. 

Incorrect: The next presidential election will take place in November, 2016.

Correct: The next presidential election will take place in November 2016.

Do not use a comma in street addresses or page numbers, or before a ZIP or other postal code.

Correct: The table appears on page 1397.

Correct: The fire occurred at 5509 Avenida Valencia.

Correct: Write to the program advisor at 645 5th Street, Minerton, Indiana 55555.

Comma Splice Errors

A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses (that is, two complete sentences) are joined only by a comma. In those situations, an acceptable form of punctuation would be a semicolon or a period. For example:

Incorrect: Every day, millions of children go to daycare with millions of other kids, there is no guarantee that none of them are harboring infectious conditions.

Incorrect: Many daycares have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious, enforcing those rules can be very difficult.

Incorrect: Daycare providers often undergo extreme pressure to accept a sick child "just this once," the parent has no other care options and cannot miss work.

Once you discover where the two independent clauses are "spliced," there are several ways to separate them. You can make two complete sentences by inserting a period. This is the strongest level of separation. You can use a semicolon between the two clauses if they are of equal importance; this allows your reader to consider the points together. You can use a semicolon with a transition word to indicate a specific relation between the two clauses; however, you should use this sparingly. You can use a coordinating conjunction following the comma, and this also will indicate a relationship. Or, you can add a word to one clause to make it dependent.

For example:

Correct: Every day, millions of children go to daycare with millions of other kids. There is no guarantee that none of them are harboring infectious conditions.

Correct: Many daycares have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious; enforcing those rules can be very difficult.

Correct: Many daycares have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious, but enforcing those rules can be very difficult.

Correct: Daycare providers often undergo extreme pressure to accept a sick child "just this once" because the parent has no other care options and cannot miss work.

Run-On Errors

While a run-on sentence, also known as a fused sentence, might just seem like a type of sentence that goes on and on without a clear point, the technical grammatical definition of a run-on sentence is one that fuses, or "runs together," two or more independent clauses without using punctuation to separate them. The independent clauses may not have any punctuation separating them, or they may have a coordinating conjunction between them, but without the comma that needs to accompany it to separate the independent clauses. For example:

Incorrect: Every day, millions of children go to daycare with millions of other kids there is no guarantee that none of them are harboring infectious conditions.

Incorrect: Many daycare centers have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious but enforcing those rules can be very difficult.

Incorrect: Daycare providers often undergo extreme pressure to accept a sick child "just this once" the parent has no other care options and cannot miss work.

If you locate a run-on sentence and find where the two independent clauses "collide," you can decide how best to separate the clauses. Fixing run-on sentences is very similar to fixing comma splices. You can make two complete sentences by inserting a period. This is the strongest level of separation. You can use a semicolon between the two clauses if they are of equal importance; this allows your reader to consider the points together. You can use a semicolon with a transition word to indicate a specific relation between the two clauses; however, you should use this sparingly. You can use a coordinating conjunction and a comma, and this also will indicate a relationship. Or, you can add a word to one clause to make it dependent.

For example:

Correct: Every day, millions of children go to daycare with millions of other kids. There is no guarantee that none of them are harboring infectious conditions.

Correct: Many daycares have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious; however, enforcing those rules can be very difficult.

Correct: Many daycares have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious, but enforcing those rules can be very difficult.

Correct: Daycare providers often undergo extreme pressure to accept a sick child "just this once" because the parent has no other care options and cannot miss work.

Attributions

Introduction to Commas

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Apposition." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apposition. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Restrictiveness." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Comma." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"adjective." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adjective. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"infinitive." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/infinitive. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"preposition." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/preposition. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"participle." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/participle. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"The Comma." https://writingguide.wikispaces.com/The+Comma+(. writingguide Wikispace CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Commas." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Commas. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"English in Use/Commas." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Commas. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"adverb." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adverb. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33437/33437-h/33437-h.htm. Public domain.

Common Comma Mistakes

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Comma." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"preposition." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/preposition. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"participle." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/participle. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"The Comma." https://writingguide.wikispaces.com/The+Comma. writingguide Wikispace CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Commas." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Commas. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"English in Use/Commas." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Commas. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"comma." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comma. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

5.2: Colons and Semicolons

5.2.1: Colons

Colons are used to introduce detailed lists or phrases and to show relationships between numbers, facts, words, and lists. 

Learning Objective

Identify sentences that require colons

Key Points

A colon can introduce the logical consequence, or effect, of a previously stated fact.

A colon can introduce the elements of a set or list. 

Colons separate chapter and verse numbers in citations of passages in widely studied texts, such as epic poetry, religious texts, and the plays of William Shakespeare. A colon can also separate the subtitle of a work from its principal title.

Colons may also separate the numbers indicating hours, minutes, and seconds in abbreviated measures of time.

Sometimes, a colon can introduce speech or dialogue.

Key Terms

enumeration

A detailed account in which each thing is noted.

appositive

A word or phrase that is placed with another as an explanatory equivalent.

Using Colons in Sentences

Some punctuation marks, such as periods, question marks, and exclamation points, indicate the end of a sentence. However, commas, semicolons, and colons all can appear within a sentence without ending it.

The colon has a wide range of uses. The most common use is to inform the reader that whatever follows the colon proves, explains, defines, describes, or lists elements of what preceded the colon. Essentially, sentences that are divided by colons are of the form, "Sentence about something: list or definition related to that sentence."

In modern American English usage, a colon must be preceded by a complete sentence with a list, a description, an explanation, or a definition following it. The elements that follow the colon may or may not be complete sentences. Because the colon is preceded by a sentence, it is a complete sentence whether what follows the colon is another sentence or not.

In American English, many writers capitalize the word following a colon if it begins an independent clause—that is, a clause that can stand as a complete sentence. The Chicago Manual of Style, however, requires capitalization only when the colon introduces speech or a quotation, a direct question, or two or more complete sentences.

Other Uses of the Colon

In addition to being used in the middle of sentences, colons can also be used to visually separate information.

Separating Chapters and Verses 

A colon should be used to separate chapter and verse numbers in citations of passages in widely studied texts, such as epic poetry, religious texts, and the plays of William Shakespeare.

Example: John 3:14–16 refers to verses 14 through 16 of chapter three of the Gospel of John.

Separating Numbers in Time Abbreviations

Example: The concert begins at 11:45 PM.

Example: The rocket launched at 09:15:05 AM.

Separating Titles and Subtitles

An appositive colon also separates the subtitle of a work from its principal title.

Example: Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope

Introducing Speech

Similar to a dash and a quotation mark, a segmental colon can introduce speech.

Example: Benjamin Franklin proclaimed the virtue of frugality: "A penny saved is a penny earned."

This form can also be used in written dialogues, such as plays. The colon indicates that the words following an individual's name are spoken by that individual.

Example: 

Patient: Doctor, I feel like a pair of curtains. 

Doctor: Pull yourself together!

5.2.2: Semicolons

Semicolons are used to link related clauses and to separate information in lists that contain additional punctuation.

Learning Objective

Identify when and how to use semicolons properly

Key Points

Semicolons connect two closely related, independent clauses (complete sentences) and turn them into a single sentence. 

Semicolons take the place of periods or commas followed by coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

Semicolons should be used before conjunctive adverbs (however, meanwhile, therefore, otherwise, in addition, and others) to link together sentences. Follow conjunctive adverbs with a comma. 

Semicolons can be used in lists that include lots of commas.

Key Terms

coordinating conjunction

Simple words that connect two independent clauses together or connect an independent clause to a dependent clause (sentence fragment). They are remembered by the acronym FANBOYS.

dependent clause

This group of words also contains a subject and/or verb, but do not create a complete, stand-alone sentence.

conjunctive adverbs

These words are preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. There is a long list, but here are some examples: however, meanwhile, in addition, and therefore. 

independent clause

A group of words that contains a subject (noun) and a verb and can stand as a complete sentence. 

Semicolons link together independent clauses that are closely related, making them flow into a single sentence. Often, using a period to separate related sentences makes them seem choppy. A semicolon is an alternative to using a period or a comma plus coordinating conjunction. Semicolons used before conjunctive adverbs also replace periods. It is important to understand that using a semicolon in place of a period fuses two independent clauses into one; therefore, make sure you don't start the second independent clause with a capital letter. The final use of semicolons is to separate items in a list or series with lots of commas or other punctuation.  

Linking Independent Clauses

Semicolons can be used to join closely related, independent clauses. There are three ways to link independent clauses: with a period, a semicolon, or a comma plus coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS). 

With a period: John finished his homework. He forgot to pass it in.

With a semicolon: John finished his homework; he forgot to pass it in. 

With a comma plus a coordinating conjunction: John finished his homework, but he forgot to pass it in. 

Remember, use of a semicolon is only appropriate if the sentences have a strong relationship to each other. 

Independent Clauses Linked with Conjunctive Adverbs

Semicolons can also be used between independent clauses linked with a conjunctive adverb. Follow the conjunctive adverbs with a comma. This usage is very formal, and is typically found in academic tests.  

Example: Everyone knows he committed the crime; accordingly, we expect the jury to agree on a guilty verdict. 

Example: The students failed to finish their in-class assignment; therefore, they are required to remain after school. 

Listing Items in a Series 

Semicolons are used between items in a list or series when those items themselves contain internal punctuation.

Example: Several fast-food restaurants can be found within the following cities: London, England; Paris, France; Dublin, Ireland; and Madrid, Spain.

Example: Here are three examples of familiar sequences: one, two, three; a, b, c; first, second, third.

Example: Dental hygienists perform clerical jobs such as bookkeeping, answering phones, and filing; administrative jobs such as filing out insurance claims and maintaining patient files; and clinical jobs such as making impressions of the teeth and gums, taking x-rays, and removing sutures.

Formatting with Semicolons

Capitalization 

Semicolons are typically followed by a lowercase letter, unless that letter is the first letter of a proper noun like "I" or "Paris." In some style guides, such as APA, however, the first word of the joined independent clause should be capitalized.

Spacing

Modern style guides recommend no space before semicolons and one space after. Modern style guides also typically recommend placing semicolons outside of ending quotation marks.

Attributions

Colons

"Colon." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_(punctuation). Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"appositive." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/appositive. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"enumeration." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/enumeration. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

Semicolons

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Semicolon." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicolon. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Independent Clauses." https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/independent_clause. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Coordinating Conjunctions." https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coordinating_conjunction. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

5.3: Apostrophes and Quotation Marks

5.3.1: Apostrophes

Apostrophes are used to mark contractions, possessives, and some plurals.

Learning Objective

Identify words which require apostrophes

Key Points

Apostrophes can be used to indicate possessives (for example, "my dad's recipe.")

Apostrophes can be used to form contractions, where they indicate the omission of characters (for example, "don't" instead of "do not.")

Apostrophes can also be used to form plurals for abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols in cases where forming a plural in the conventional way would make the sentence ambiguous.

Key Term

apostrophe

A punctuation mark, and sometimes a diacritic mark, in languages that use the Latin alphabet or certain other alphabets.

Using Apostrophes to Show Possession

Apostrophes can be used to show who owns or possesses something. 

For Nouns Not Ending in -s

The basic rule is that to indicate possession, add an apostrophe followed by an "s" to the end of the word.

The car belonging to the driver = the driver's car.

The sandwich belonging to Lois = Lois's sandwich.

Hats belonging to children = children's hats.

For Nouns Ending in -s

However, if the word already ends with "s," just use the apostrophe with no added "s." For example:

The house belonging to Ms. Peters = Ms. Peters' house. (Even though Ms. Peters is singular. )

The same holds true for plural nouns, if their plural ends in "s." Just use an apostrophe for these!

Three cats' toys are on the floor.

The two ships' lights shone through the dark.

For More Than One Noun

In sentences where two individuals own one thing jointly, add the possessive apostrophe to the last noun. If, however, two individuals possess two separate things, add the apostrophe to both nouns. For example:

Joint: I went to see Anthony and Anders' new apartment. (The apartment belongs to both Anthony and Anders.)

Individual: Anders' and Anthony's senses of style were quite different. (Anders and Anthony have individual senses of style.)

For Compound Nouns

In cases of compound nouns composed of more than one word, place the apostrophe after the last noun. For example:

Dashes: My brother-in-law's house is down the block.

Multi-word: The Minister for Justice's intervention was required.

Plural compound: All my brothers-in-law's wives are my sisters.

For Words Ending in Punctuation

If the word or compound includes, or even ends with, a punctuation mark, an apostrophe and an "s" are still added in the usual way. For example:

Westward Ho!'s railway station

Louis C.K.'s HBO special

For Words Ending in -'s

If an original apostrophe, or apostrophe with s, is already included at the end of a noun, it is left by itself to perform double duty. For example:

Our employees are better paid than McDonald's employees.

Standard & Poor's indexes are widely used.

The fixed, non-possessive forms of McDonald's and Standard & Poor's already include possessive apostrophes.

Don't Use Apostrophes For ...

Nouns that are not possessive. For example:

Incorrect: Some parent's are more strict than mine.

Possessive pronouns such as its, whose, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs. These are the only words that are able to be possessive without apostrophes. For example:

Incorrect: That parakeet is her's.

Using Apostrophes to Form Contractions

In addition to serving as a marker for possession, apostrophes are also commonly used to indicate omitted characters. For example:

can't (from cannot)

it's (from it has or it is)

you've (from you have)

gov't (from government)

'70s, (from 1970s)

'bout (from about)

An apostrophe is also sometimes used when the normal form of an inflection seems awkward or unnatural. For example:

K.O.'d rather than K.O.ed (where K.O. is used as a verb meaning "to knock out")

Using Apostrophes to Form Plurals

Apostrophes are sometimes used to form plurals for abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols where adding just s as opposed to 's may leave things ambiguous or inelegant. For example, when you are pluralizing a single letter:

All of your sentences end with a's. (As opposed to "All of your sentences end with as.")

She tops all of her i's with hearts. (As opposed to "She tops all of her is with hearts.")

In such cases where there is little or no chance of misreading, however, it is generally preferable to omit the apostrophe. For example:

He scored three 8s for his floor routine. (As opposed to "three 8's.")

She holds two MAs, both from Princeton. (As opposed to "two MA's.")

5.3.2: Quotation Marks

Quotation marks are most often used to mark direct speech or words from another author or speaker. 

Learning Objective

Identify situations which require quotation marks

Key Points

Quotation marks indicate words that are spoken by someone who is not the author.

Quotation marks are also used to title short literary works such as poems, short stories, essays, and newspaper and magazine articles. 

Quotation marks can also be used to show irony or highlight specific words. 

In research papers, it is important to use quotation marks to highlight the work of another author when directly quoting that author. 

Key Term

quotation mark

A punctuation mark used to denote speech or when words are copied from another author or speaker; can be double quotations (") or single quotations ('). 

Quotation marks are most commonly used to mark direct speech or identify the words of another author or speaker. Quotation marks can also be used to highlight specific words, express the title of a short literary work, or to emphasize irony.  

Speech

Single or double quotation marks denote either speech or a quotation. Double quotes are preferred in the United States. Regardless, the style of opening and closing quotation marks must match. For example:

Single quotation marks: 'Good morning, Frank,' said Hal. 

Double quotation marks: "Good morning, Frank," said Hal.

For speech within speech, use double quotation marks on the outside, and single marks on the inner quotation. For example:

"Hal said, 'Good morning, Dave,'" recalled Frank.

When quoted text is interrupted, a closing quotation mark is used before the interruption, and an opening quotation mark is used after the interruption. Commas are often used before and after the phrase as well. For example:

"Hal said everything was going well," noted Frank, "but also that he could use a little help."

Quotation marks are not used for paraphrased speech because a paraphrase is not a direct quote. Quotation marks represent another person's exact words.

Quoting Literature and Research

In most cases, quotations that span multiple paragraphs should be set as block quotations, and thus do not require quotation marks. When quotation marks are used for multiple-paragraph quotations, the convention in English is to give opening quotation marks to the first and each subsequent paragraph, using closing quotation marks only for the final paragraph of the quotation. 

In research papers and literary analyses writers often need to quote a sentence or a phrase. One will need to use quotation marks when quoting authors to show which words are from the other work. Here is an example sentence: 

When J. K. Rowling began writing the Harry Potter series, she never expected “the boy who lived" to become known worldwide. 

In this example, it is clear that the phrase “the boy who lived” is from J. K. Rowling’s book. 

Titles

As a rule, a whole publication should be italicized. For example, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone is italicized because it is a book. The titles of sections within a larger publication or of smaller works (such as poems, short stories, named chapters, journal papers, newspaper articles, TV show episodes, editorial sections of websites, etc.) should be written within quotation marks. Thus, when referencing a chapter from the book one would use quotation marks: Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone begins with the chapter entitled "The Chosen One."

Let's explore some other examples. 

Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet

Dahl's "Taste" in Completely Unexpected Tales

Arthur C. Clarke's "The Sentinel"

The first chapter of 3001: The Final Odyssey is "Comet Cowboy"

"Extra-Terrestrial Relays," Wireless World, October 1945

David Bowie's song "Space Oddity" from the album David Bowie

Nicknames

Quotation marks can also offset a nickname embedded in an actual name, or a false or ironic title embedded in an actual title. For example:

Nat "King" Cole

Miles "Tails" Prower

Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson

Use-Mention Distinctions

Either quotation marks or italics can indicate when a word refers to the word itself rather than its associated concept (i.e., when the word is "mentioned" rather than "used").

Cheese is derived from milk. [Use]

Cheese has calcium, protein, and phosphorus. [Use]

"Cheese" is derived from a word in Old English. [Mention]

Cheese has three e's. [Mention]

Irony

Quotes indicating verbal irony or another special use are sometimes called scare quotes. For example:

He shared his "wisdom" with me.

The lunch lady plopped a glob of "food" onto my tray.

Quotation marks are also sometimes used to indicate that the writer realizes that a word is not being used in its current commonly accepted sense. In these cases, the quotation marks can call attention to slang, special terminology, a neologism, or they can indicate words or phrases that are unusual, colloquial, folksy, startling, humorous, metaphoric, or that contain a pun. For example:

Crystals somehow "know" which shape to grow into.

I hope your diving meet goes "swimmingly"!

Using quotation marks in these ways should be avoided when possible.

Punctuating Quotations

In English, question marks and exclamation marks are placed inside or outside quoted material depending on whether they apply to the whole sentence or just the quoted portion. Commonly, they apply to the quoted portion and will be included inside the quotation marks. In some situations, however, the exclamation mark or question mark will apply to the sentence as a whole and will come after the quotation mark. In contrast, colons and semicolons are always placed outside of the quotation marks. Let's explore this punctuation rule further with some examples. 

Did he say, "Good morning, Dave"? (The question mark does not refer to the phrase within the quotation marks so the question mark is placed outside of the quotation marks.)

No, he said, "Where are you, Dave?" (Here, the question mark is part of the question posed within the quotation marks.)

There are three major definitions of the word "gender": vernacular, sociological, and linguistic. (Colons and semicolons always come after the quotation mark.)

In American English, commas and periods are usually placed inside quotation marks, except in the few cases where they may cause serious ambiguity. For example:

"Carefree," in general, means "free from care or anxiety."

The name of the song was "Gloria," which many already knew.

She said she felt "free from care and anxiety."

"Today," said the Prime Minister, "I feel free from care and anxiety."

To use a long dash on Wikipedia, type in "—". (Here, the period comes after the quotation mark because quotation marks are used to highlight specifically what should be typed.)

The style used in the UK contains only punctuation used by the original source, placing commas, periods, question marks, and exclamation marks inside or outside quotation marks depending on where they were placed in the material that is being quoted.

"Carefree" means "free from care or anxiety." (American style)

"Carefree" means "free from care or anxiety". (British style)

Attributions

Apostrophes

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"English in Use/Punctuation." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Punctuation%23Apostrophe. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"apostrophe." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/apostrophe. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"elision." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/elision. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Apostrophe." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostrophe. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Apostrophes." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Apostrophes. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

Quotation Marks

"Quotation mark." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotation%20mark. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Quotation marks." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotation_marks. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"English in Use/Punctuation." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Punctuation%23Quotation_points. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Quotation Marks." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Quotation_Marks. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

5.4: Hyphens and Dashes

5.4.1: Hyphens

Hyphens are often used to connect two words into a single term. 

Learning Objective

Identify situations which require a hyphen

Key Points

Hyphens connect two words to make a single word. 

Hyphens are also used to attach a prefix to a word.  

In some situations, hyphens connect adverbs and adjectives to describe a noun. This can be avoided by rewording the sentence. 

The placement of a hyphen can greatly change the meaning of a word and thus the entire sentence.

Key Terms

hyphen

The symbol "-", typically used to join two or more words to form a new word.

homograph

A word that is spelled the same as another but has a different meaning and usually sounds different.

Hyphens ("-") connect two words to make a single word. Though they look similar to dashes ("–" and "—"), they serve a different purpose. The dash is a form of punctuation that comes in between words whereas hyphens combine words. Like most components of English punctuation, hyphens have general rules regarding how they should be used. Hyphens are often used to connect adverbs and adjectives when describing a noun. Let’s explore these concepts in greater detail. 

Linking Prefixes

Hyphens can be used to link prefixes such as non-, sub-, and super- to their main words. While it is possible (especially in American English) to attach these prefixes without hyphens, it is generally helpful to hyphenate when the letters brought into contact are the same. It's also helpful when the letters are vowels, when a word is uncommon, or when the word could easily be misread. For example:

Non-negotiable

Sub-basement

Pre-industrial

Units

In general, values and units are hyphenated when the unit is given as a whole word:

30-year-old man

One half-dose

Homographs

Homographs are words that are spelled the same, but mean different things and may be pronounced differently. To prevent confusion, hyphens can be used to distinguish between homographs. For example:

Re-dress (to dress again)

Redress (to remedy or set right)

Combining Adverbs and Adjectives 

Hyphens can be used to combine an adverb and adjective to describe a noun. In this situation, the adverb is describing the adjective, and the adjective is describing the noun. However, when the adverb ends with -ly, a hyphen should not be used. 

Disease-causing nutrition

Beautiful-looking flowers

A well-meaning gesture

It is not always necessary to use a hyphenated word. Sentences can be rearranged to avoid the need for a hyphen. If the adverb and adjective come after the noun being described, a hyphen is not needed. For example:

A light-blue handbag sat on the bench.

The handbag was light blue.

Remember that using hyphens to combine adverbs and adjectives in this way creates a new word. The placement of hyphens can greatly change the meaning of a word, thus changing the entire sentence. Let’s look at some examples of how removing a hyphen changes the meaning. 

Disease-causing poor nutrition. (Poor nutrition that causes disease.)

Disease causing poor nutrition. (A disease that causes poor nutrition.)

Little-celebrated paintings (Paintings that are underappreciated.)

Little celebrated paintings (Small, appreciated paintings.)

Government-monitoring program (A program that monitors the government.)

Government monitoring program (A program the government monitors.)

Using hyphens correctly is important to clarifying these phrases. 

5.4.2: Em Dashes and En Dashes

Dashes are often used to mark interruptions within sentences and show relationships between words.

Learning Objective

Use em dashes and en dashes correctly in your writing

Key Points

Dashes are commonly used to indicate an unexpected or emphatic pause, but they serve other specific functions as well.

Dashes are often used to mark interruptions within sentences, illustrate relationships between words, and demarcate value ranges.

There are two kinds of dashes: em dashes (—) and shorter en dashes (–).

Dashes should not be confused with hyphens (-). 

Dashes

There are two kinds of dashes: em dashes (—) and shorter en dashes (–). 

The Em Dash

Em dashes are often used to mark interruptions within sentences. They can be used with or without spacing. 

For example:

Three unlikely companions—a canary, an eagle, and a parrot—flew by my window in an odd flock. (Chicago Style)

Three unlikely companions — a canary, an eagle and a parrot — flew by my window in an odd flock. (AP Style)

Em dashes are also used to indicate that a sentence is unfinished because the speaker has been interrupted. Similarly, they can be used in place of an ellipsis to illustrate an instance where a sentence is stopped short because the speaker is too emotional to continue. 

For example:

"Hey," said Paul, "where do you think—"

"I never understood why you—" Cesar trailed off.

Em dashes are sometimes used to summarize or define prior information in a sentence. 

For example:

When he saw his brother—his long-lost brother who disappeared six years prior—he broke down in tears. (Chicago Style)

Today is St. Patrick's Day — a day for family. (AP Style)

The En Dash

En dashes are used to demonstrate definite ranges of values. In these cases, there should not be any spaces around the en dash. 

For example:

June–July 1967

1:00–2:00 p.m.

For ages 3–5

pp. 38–55

President Jimmy Carter (1977–1981)

The en dash can also be used to contrast values, or illustrate a relationship between two things. There are no spaces around the en dashes in these instances.  

For example:

Radical–Unionist coalition

New York–London flight

Mother–daughter relationship

The Supreme Court voted 5–4 to uphold the decision

The McCain–Feingold bill

An exception to the use of en dashes is made, however, when combined with an already hyphenated compound. In these cases, using an en dash is distracting. Use a hyphen instead. 

For example:

Non-English-speaking air traffic controllers

Semi-labor-intensive industries

When he saw his brother—his long-lost brother who disappeared six years prior—he broke down in tears.

The title contains an example of em dash usage, which, in this case, shows a break in the sentence. 

Attributions

Hyphens

"Wikipedia:Manual of Style." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style%23Hyphens. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Hyphen." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphen. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"homograph." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/homograph. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"hyphen." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hyphen. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"compound." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

Em Dashes and En Dashes

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Parantheses." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parantheses. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Parentheses." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parentheses%23Parentheses_.28_.29. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Dash." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dash. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Hyphens and Dashes." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Hyphens_and_Dashes. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"dash." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dash. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"English in Use/Punctuation." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Punctuation%23Dash. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Parentheses." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parentheses. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19642/19642-h/19642-h.htm. Public domain.

5.5: Other Punctuation

5.5.1: Parentheses

Parentheses can be used to interject remarks or other information into a sentence. 

Learning Objective

List the uses of parentheses

Key Points

Parentheses can be used to set off supplementary, interjected, explanatory or illustrative remarks.

The words placed inside the parentheses are not necessary to understanding or completing the sentence.

Square brackets are mainly used to enclose explanatory or missing material, which is usually added by someone other than the original author.

Parentheses are sometimes used to enclose numbers within a sentence.

Key Term

parentheses

Punctuation marks used in matched pairs to set apart or interject additional text into a sentence.

Example

Parentheses

Parentheses can be used to set off supplementary, interjected, explanatory, or illustrative remarks. They are tall punctuation marks "()" used in matched pairs within text, to set apart or interject other text.  

The words placed inside the parentheses are not necessary to understanding or completing the sentence. The words within the parentheses could be removed and a complete sentence would still exists.

Parentheses may also be nested (usually with one set (such as this) inside another set). This is not common in formal writing (though sometimes other brackets [especially square brackets] will be used for one or more inner set of parentheses [in other words, secondary {or even tertiary} phrases can be found within the main parenthetical sentence]).

There are many ways to use parentheses.

Interrupted Sentence

Jimmy (who we all know is smart) said we should keep searching.

Be sure to call me (extension 2104) when you get this message.

Copyright affects how much regulation is enforced (Lessig 2004).

Sen. John McCain (R., Arizona) ran for president in 2008.

Any punctuation inside parentheses or other brackets is independent of the rest of the text. When several sentences of supplemental material are used in parentheses, the ending punctuation is placed within the parentheses. For example:

Mrs. Pennyfarthing (What? Yes, that was her name!) was my landlady.

Enumeration 

Parentheses are sometimes used to enclose numbers within a sentence. The purpose of using numbers within parentheses is to highlight multiple points in one sentence. 

All applicants must submit (1) a cover letter, (2) a resume, (3) a list of references, (4) an essay, and (5) letters of recommendation. 

The numbers within parentheses highlight the items applicants need to include. They are intended to add clarity to the sentence. 

Square Brackets

Square brackets are mainly used to enclose explanatory or missing material, which is usually added by someone other than the original author. This is especially prevalent in quoted text. For example:

"I appreciate it [i.e., the honor], but I must refuse. "

"The future of psionics [i.e., mental powers that affect physical matter] is in doubt."

Modifying Quotations

Square brackets may also be used to modify quotations. For example, if referring to someone's statement "I hate to do laundry," one could write: He "hate[s] to do laundry."

The bracketed expression "[sic]" is used after a quote or reprinted text to indicate the passage appears exactly as in the original source; a bracketed ellipsis "[...]" is often used to indicate deleted material; bracketed comments indicate when original text has been modified for clarity. For example:

"I'd like to thank [several unimportant people] and my parentals [sic] for their love, tolerance [...] and assistance [emphasis added]."

5.5.2: Ending Punctuation

Ending punctuation identifies the end of a sentence, and most commonly includes periods, question marks, and exclamation marks.

Learning Objective

Identify the correct punctuation to end a given sentence

Key Points

Ending punctuation comprises symbols that indicate the end of a sentence, such as periods, question marks, and exclamation points.

Periods are used at the end of declarative or imperative sentences.

Question marks come at the end of sentences that make a request or ask a direct question. Declarative sentences sometimes contain direct questions.

A sentence ending in an exclamation mark may be an exclamation, an imperative, or may indicate astonishment.

Key Terms

exclamation mark

A punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high volume (shouting).

question mark

Punctuation at the end of a sentence that asks a direct question.

period

The punctuation mark that indicates the end of a sentence.

Ending punctuation comprises symbols that indicate the end of a sentence. Most commonly, these are periods, question marks, and exclamation points. Ending punctuation can also be referred to as end marks, stops, or terminal punctuation. 

There are three main types of ending punctuation: the period, the question mark, and the exclamation mark. A period (.) is the punctuation mark that indicates the end of a sentence. The question mark (?) replaces a period at the end of a sentence that asks a direct question. The exclamation mark (!) is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high volume (shouting), and often marks the end of a sentence. 

Period 

Periods are used at the end of declarative or imperative sentences. Recall that declarative sentences make statements and imperative sentences give commands. Periods can also be used at the end of an indirect question. Indirect questions are designed to ask for information without actually asking a question. Let’s review some examples.

My dog is a golden retriever. (declarative sentence)

Go get your dog and bring him inside the house. (imperative sentence)

Janet’s mom and dad want to know what she is doing. (indirect question)

“Get some paper towels,” she ordered. (declarative sentence containing an imperative statement) 

Periods are also used in abbreviations. For example, "doctor" is abbreviated "Dr." and "junior" is abbreviated "Jr." Remember that if an abbreviation that uses a period comes at the end of a sentence you do not add a period—the period with the abbreviation serves as the ending punctuation as well. 

Question Mark 

Question marks come at the end of sentences that make a request or ask a direct question. Declarative sentences sometimes contain direct questions. 

What is Janet doing? (direct question)

Her mother asked, “What are you doing, Janet?” (declarative sentence with a direct question)

Exclamation Mark 

A sentence ending in an exclamation mark may be an exclamation, an imperative, or may indicate astonishment. Like question marks, exclamation marks can be included within declarative sentences. Let’s review some examples. 

Wow! (exclamation)

Boo! (exclamation)

Stop! (imperative)

They were the footprints of a gigantic duck! (astonishment)

He yelled, “Stay off the grass!” (declarative sentence that includes an exclamation)

Exclamation marks are occasionally placed mid-sentence with a function similar to a comma, for dramatic effect, although this usage is obsolescent: "On the walk, oh! there was a frightful noise."

Informally, exclamation marks may be repeated for additional emphasis ("That's great!!!"), but this practice is generally considered unacceptable in formal prose. The exclamation mark is sometimes used in conjunction with the question mark. This can be in protest or astonishment ("Out of all places, the squatter-camp?!"); again, this is informal. Overly frequent use of the exclamation mark is generally considered poor style, for it distracts the reader and devalues the mark's significance.

Cut out all those exclamation points.

The famous author F. Scott Fitzgerald was not a fan of exclamation points; in his words: "Cut out all those exclamation points. An exclamation point is like laughing at your own jokes."

Attributions

Parentheses

"psionics." https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psionics. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

Ending Punctuation

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Punctuation." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punctuation. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Terminal punctuation." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_punctuation. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Question mark." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question_mark. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Full Stop." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_stop. Wikpedia CC BY-SA 4.0.

"Exclamation mark." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclamation_mark. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"interrogative." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interrogative. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Period (punctuation)." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_(punctuation). Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Period (punctuation)." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_(punctuation). Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"F Scott Fitzgerald." http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:F_Scott_Fitzgerald.jpg. Wikimedia Public domain.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/12415/12415-h/12415-h.htm. Public domain.

5.6: General Mechanics

5.6.1: Common Spelling Errors

It is important to be familiar with common spelling errors to avoid them in your own writing.

Learning Objective

Recognize common spelling errors

Key Points

It is important to be familiar with spelling errors that writers frequently make so you can avoid them in your own writing.

Knowing why these mistakes occur will help you write with better awareness.

Word-processing programs usually have a spell-checker, but you should still carefully check for correct changes in your words. This is because automatic spell-checkers may not always understand the context of a word.

Key Terms

phonetics

The study of the physical sounds of human speech (phones) and the processes of their physiological production, auditory reception, and neurophysiological perception, as well as their representation by written symbols.

typo

A spelling error.

homophone

A word which is pronounced the same as another word but differs in spelling or meaning or origin, for example: carat, caret, carrot, and karat.

The Importance of Spelling

Misspelling a word might seem like a minor mistake, but it can reflect very poorly on a writer. It suggests one of two things: either the writer does not care enough about his work to proofread it, or he does not know his topic well enough to properly spell words related to it. Either way, spelling errors will make a reader less likely to trust a writer's authority.

The best way to ensure that a paper has no spelling errors is to look for them during the proofreading stage of the writing process. Being familiar with the most common errors will help you find (and fix) them during the writing and proofreading stage.

Sometimes, a writer just doesn't know how to spell the word she wants to use. This may be because the word is technical jargon or comes from a language other than her own. Other times, it may be a proper name that she has not encountered before. Anytime you want to use a word but are unsure of how to spell it, do not guess. Instead, check a dictionary or other reference work to find its proper spelling.

Common Spelling Errors

Phonetic Errors

Phonetics is a field that studies the sounds of a language. However, English phonetics can be tricky: In English, the pronunciation of a word does not always relate to the way it is spelled. This can make spelling a challenge. Here are some common phonetic irregularities:

A word can sound like it could be spelled multiple ways. For example: "concede" and "conceed" are the same phonetically, but only "concede" is the proper spelling.

A word has silent letters that the writer may forget to include. You cannot hear the "a" in "realize," but you need it to spell the word correctly.

A word has double letters that the writer may forget to include. "Accommodate," for example, is frequently misspelled as "acommodate" or "accomodate."

The writer may use double letters when they are not needed. The word "amend" has only one "m," but it is commonly misspelled with two.

Sometimes, words just aren't spelled the way they sound. "Right," for example, does not resemble its phonetic spelling whatsoever. Try to become familiar with words that have unusual or non-phonetic spellings so you can be on the lookout for them in your writing. But again, the best way to avoid these misspellings is to consult a dictionary whenever you're unsure of the correct spelling.

Homophones

"Bread" and "bred" sound the same, but they are spelled differently, and they mean completely different things. Two words with different meanings but the same pronunciation are homophones. If you don't know which homophone is the right one to use, look both up in the dictionary to see which meaning (and spelling) you want. Common homophones include:

right, rite, wright, and write

read (most tenses of the verb) and reed

read (past, past participle) and red

rose (flower) and rose (past tense of rise)

carat, caret, and carrot

to, two, and too

there, their, and they're

its and it's

Typographical Errors

Some spelling errors are caused by the writer accidentally typing the wrong thing. Common typos include:

Omitting letters from a word (typing "brthday" instead of "birthday," for example)

Adding extra letters (typing "birthdayy")

Transposing two letters in a word (typing "brithday")

Spacing words improperly (such as "myb irthday" instead of "my birthday")

Being aware of these common mistakes when writing will help you avoid spelling errors. 

5.6.2: Capital Letters

Capital letters are used to make certain words stand out.

Learning Objective

Identify words that must be capitalized

Key Points

Three situations in which a capital letter should always be used are at the start of sentences, proper nouns, and for the pronoun "I."

Names and nicknames, languages, geographical names, religions, days of the week, months, holidays, and some organizations are considered proper nouns.

In titled works (such as books, articles, or artwork) the majority of the words are capitalized.

Key Terms

capitalization

Writing a word with its first letter as a capital letter (upper-case letter) and the remaining letters in lower case.

proper noun

A word denoting a particular person, place, organization, ship, animal, event, idea, or other individual entity.

Capital letters identify proper names, people and their languages, geographical names, and certain government agencies. Different style manuals have different rules for capitalization, so it's important to have a style guide on hand while you write in case you have a question about capitalization. There are manuals for MLA, APA, Chicago/Turabian, and other styles. 

However, there are general rules for capitalization which apply to all writing.

Starting a Sentence

Always capitalize the very first word of a sentence, no matter what it is.

Experienced cooks usually enjoy experimenting with food.

The Pronoun "I"

Always capitalize the first-person singular pronoun "I."

Sometimes, I wish I could cook with them.

Quoting Others

Directly quoted speech is capitalized if it is a full sentence.

The head chef said to me, “Anyone can become a good cook if they are willing to learn.”

Proper Nouns

Names or nicknames, people, languages, geographical names, religions, days of the week, months, holidays, and some organizations are considered proper nouns. Proper nouns should always be capitalized. 

Names and Nicknames

A name or nickname should always be capitalized. This includes brand names.

John Paul II

Cindy Parker

Buffalo Bill

Pepsi

Nike

Scotch tape

People and Languages

Names referring to a person’s culture should be capitalized. Languages are also capitalized.

African Americans

Caucasian

Eskimos

French

English

Japanese

Geographical Names

The names of cities, states, countries, continents, and other specific geographic locations are capitalized.

Arctic Circle

China

New York

Europe

Organizations

Government agencies, institutions, and companies capitalize their names.

Ford Motor Company

International Red Cross

Internal Revenue Service

University of South Carolina

Days, Months, and Holidays

Days of the week, months, and holidays are always capitalized. However, seasons (fall, spring, summer, and winter) are not capitalized. 

Tuesday

October

Independence Day

Religions

Religions and their adherents, holy books, holy days, and words referencing religious figures are capitalized.

Christianity and Christian

Hinduism and Hindu

Islam and Muslim

Judaism and Jew

Bible, Koran, Talmud, Book of Mormon

Easter, Ramadan, Yom Kippur

God, Allah, Buddha

Titled Work 

In titled works (such as books, articles, or artwork) the majority of the words are capitalized. A few exceptions are a, an, the, and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet. These words are only capitalized if they come at the beginning of the title. This can vary based on style, so be sure to check your manual for specifics. 

The Scarlet Letter

From Here to Eternity

Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets

Girl with a Pearl Earring

5.6.3: Abbreviations and Acronyms

An abbreviation is the shortened form of a word or phrase.

Learning Objective

Use abbreviations appropriately in an academic context

Key Points

There are rules that explain how a writer may shorten a long word or phrase into an abbreviation or acronym.

Following abbreviation and acronym rules ensures that the reader always understands what these abbreviations mean.

Phrases like "lol" or "brb" are considered inappropriate for formal papers.

Key Terms

acronym

Abbreviations formed from the initial components in a phrase or a word. These components may be individual letters (as in CEO) or parts of words (as in Benelux and Ameslan).

abbreviation

A shortened form of a word or phrase, used to represent the whole. 

Abbreviations 

An abbreviation is the shortened form of a word or phrase. Most abbreviations are formed from a letter or group of letters taken from the original word. In an academic paper, abbreviations are rarely used to stand in for major concepts or terms. Instead, they are usually shortened forms of commonly used but relatively minor words, such as "km" for "kilometer" or "Dr." for "doctor." Most are common enough that a writer does not need to provide the reader with an expanded definition. If an abbreviation is not particularly well-known, consider whether you should use it or use the longer (but easier to understand) word.

Style Conventions for Abbreviations

Style guides may differ somewhat on how to punctuate abbreviations. Listed below are the most common guidelines, which cover most of the scenarios for using abbreviations. However, this is not a completely comprehensive list. If told to use a specific style manual, such as MLA or Turabian, be sure to check what it says about specific usage rules. And whatever style you decide to use, remember to be consistent with how you use and punctuate abbreviations.

Abbreviations should be capitalized just like their expanded forms would be. If the original word or phrase is capitalized, then you should capitalize the abbreviation. If the original is lower case, then the abbreviation should be too. Abbreviations usually end with a period, particularly if they were formed by dropping the end of a word (the major exception being the use of acronyms). When a sentence ends with an abbreviation, use only one period for both the abbreviation and the sentence.

She lives in N.Y. (New York is abbreviated as "N.Y." In this example, it comes at the end of the sentence but there is only one period.)

He got a ticket for going 70 mph when the speed limit was 55. (Miles per hour is abbreviated "mph." Note that it is not capitalized.)

The CIA is depicted in many action movies as highly secretive. (CIA is always capitalized because Central Intelligence Agency is always capitalized.)

Acronyms

Acronyms are abbreviations that form another word. Laser is so frequently used as a word that few people know it is an acronym. Laser stands for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation." Scuba is also an acronym standing for "self-contained underwater breathing apparatus." Although this was the foundation for acronyms, they do not always form another word. More often than not, acronyms are formed from the initial components of a series of words. These components are usually individual letters, but some may use the first syllables of words. The main purpose of acronyms is to act as shorthand for longer terms, particularly those a writer wants to reference frequently. In the right circumstances, acronyms can make these terms more manageable for the writer to use and for the reader to understand.

Using Acronyms in Academic Writing

While acronyms can be very useful, only some of them are considered appropriate for use in scholarly writing. In general, acronyms can be used to stand in for job titles (such as CEO), statistical categories (such as RBI) or the names of companies and organizations (such as FBI). Other instances may arise depending on the type of paper you are writing—a scientific essay, for example, might have acronyms for the names of chemical compounds or scientific terms. In most cases, you will be able to judge whether or not an acronym is appropriate based on the context of what you are writing. The only category of acronym that you should never use is slang, especially terms derived from texting. Phrases like "lol" and "brb" may be fine in casual conversation, but would make a writer seem unprofessional in a serious paper. For all acronyms you choose to use, making sure that the reader knows what they mean is essential. The first time you use any acronym, make sure to use its expanded form first. For example:

Johnathan recently joined the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP).

Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) is known for fighting for the National Minimum Drinking Age Act.

The Family Research Council (FRC) was founded in 1981.  

Once the abbreviation has been identified, as shown in these examples, you can use the abbreviated version in the rest of your document.  

Style Conventions for Acronyms

Most acronyms are written in all-uppercase with no punctuation between letters. This differs from abbreviations, which are normally written with periods in order to note the deleted parts of words. A small number of acronyms use slashes to show an ellipsis, as in "w/o" for "without." Spaces are not used between the different letters of acronyms. Apostrophes are generally not used to pluralize abbreviations. They are, however, used to form possessives.

5.6.4: Numbers

Sometimes it is appropriate to write numbers as numerals; other times they should be spelled out.

Learning Objective

List the rules for using numbers in different kinds of writing

Key Points

In academic writing, numbers that can be expressed in one or two words should be spelled out.

Numbers that are more than two words long should be written as numerals.

The proper usage of numbers in technical writing varies considerably.

Key Term

numeral

A symbol that is not a word and represents a number, such as the Arabic numerals 1, 2, 3 and the Roman numerals I, V, X, L.

Style rules for inserting numbers into text vary considerably. Whether numbers should be written out (e.g. two, two hundred) or written as numerals (e.g. 2, 200) depends on what kind of writing is being done.

Numbers as Words

In strictly academic writing, numbers of one or two words should be spelled out with letters. For example: 

Anthony was able to bike five miles in less than an hour. 

Notice that 5 is written out as "five" because it is one word. 

Maria bought five bananas, two bunches of grapes, and six oranges for her fruit salad. She needed twenty-one servings for the luncheon.

Notice that each number is written out, including 21, because all of them are one or two words.

Numbers as Numerals

Numbers that are more than two words long should be written as numerals. For example: "Our vacation to North Carolina ended up being 728 miles, as a round trip." Or, in the case of years: "Tony was born in the fall of 1966."

Also, the following numbers are written as numerals:

Dates: December 7, 1941, 32 BC, AD 1066

Addresses: 119 Lakewood Lane, 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue

Percentages: 45 percent or 45%

Fractions and decimals: 1/3 and 0.25

Scores: 20 to 13 or 15–18

Statistics: average age 25

Surveys: 2 out of 5

Exact amounts of money: $861.34 or $0.67

Divisions of books: volume 6 or chapter 5

Divisions of plays: act 2, scene 4

Time of day: 12:00 AM or 4:35 PM

Technical Writing

In technical writing (i.e., research writing or other writing that includes measurements or statistics), the proper usage of numbers varies substantially. Typical rules to follow in technical writing include:

Technical quantities of any amount are expressed in numerals (3 feet, 12 grams, et cetera).

Nontechnical quantities of fewer than 10 are expressed in words (three people, six whales).

Nontechnical quantities of 10 or more are expressed in numerals (300 people, 12 whales).

Approximations are written out as letters (approximately ten thousand people).

Decimals are expressed in numerals (3.14).

Decimals of less than one are usually preceded by zero (0.146); however, this may vary depending on the style you are asked to write in.

Fractions are written out, unless they are linked to technical units (two-thirds of the members, 3 1/2 hp).

Page numbers and the titles of figures and tables are expressed in numerals.

Back-to-back numbers are written using both words and numerals (six 3-inch screws).

Special Cases

There are many special cases for writing numbers. A number at the beginning of a sentence should be spelled out as words. Within a sentence, the same unit of measurement should be expressed consistently in either numerals or words. In general, months should not be expressed in terms of numbers.

Numbers in the news

When numbers are used in text, many basic formatting rules apply.

5.6.5: Italics

Writers use italics to emphasise certain words such as titles, scientific words, and foreign words. 

Learning Objective

Identify situations in which italics should be used

Key Points

Italics are a typeface feature designed to make words stand out. There are general rules to using italics properly. 

Titles of textbooks, fiction or nonfiction books, newspapers, magazines, academic journals, films, epic poems, plays, operas, musical albums, television shows, movies, works of art, and the names of legal cases should all be italicized.

Italics can also be used to emphasize certain words.

Italics should always be used with scientific terms, algebraic equations, and foreign-language words. 

Key Term

italics

A typeface style that is used to add emphasis to words. 

Italics are letters that slant slightly to the right. When using a word processor (like Microsoft Word) italicized words generally look like this: 

This sentence is in italics. 

Italics should be used consistently in your writing. In general, italics are used to identify the title of a major publication (such as a book, newspaper, or magazine), for emphasis, for scientific or technical words, and for foreign words. 

Titles

The titles of major literary works should be italicized. This includes textbooks, fiction or nonfiction books, newspapers, magazines, academic journals, films, epic poems, plays, operas, musical albums, television shows, movies, works of art, and the names of legal cases. 

My favorite book is July's People by Nadine Gordimer. 

I read The New York Times to keep up with the political debates. 

I have every Taylor Swift album except Today Was a Fairytale. 

The 1976 version of the movie Carrie was much scarier than the newer version. 

Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey are my two favorite epic poems. 

The Scream by Edvard Munch is a well-known painting.

Keep in mind that smaller published works, such as an individual article from a newspaper/magazine/journal, or a single poem, should be set in quotation marks. For example: 

The magazine Southern Living published an interesting article on traveling in the U.S. called "The South's Best Roadside Attractions" in the November, 2015 edition. 

Emphasis

When you need to emphasize a word you can use italics to make it stand out. Sometimes, emphasizing certain words gives the sentence a sarcastic tone. It can also emphasize a fact as true. Let's review some examples. 

She only wants to make 100% on every test. 

If they are offended, then that’s their problem.

These are the files we need. 

Scientific or Technical Terms

Italics are often used in scientific and mathematical writing. Algebraic equations are usually italicized. The scientific (Latin) names of species are also italicized. Here are some examples. 

Slope is found by calculating y=mx+b.

Several more Homo sapiens fossils were discovered recently.

The scientific name for the house sparrow is Passer domesticus. 

Foreign Languages

Words in foreign languages should also be italicized. Here are a couple of examples. 

In an interview, Julia Alvarez once said, “What I can’t push as successfully out of sight are my own immigrant childhood fears of having a gringa stepmother with foreign tastes in our house."

I was at the coffee shop when a man approached me and said, “Como esta?” like he knew me, but I don't speak Spanish. 

The only exceptions are words that have been integrated into English like cliché, patio, and karate. Otherwise, foreign words should be italicized. 

Bubo scandiacus

The species name is italicized because species names are in Latin. 

Attributions

Common Spelling Errors

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Homophone." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophone. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Commonly misspelled words." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonly_misspelled_words. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"typo." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/typo. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"phonetics." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phonetics. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"homophone." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/homophone. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

Capital Letters

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"proper noun." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proper_noun. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

Abbreviations and Acronyms

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Abbreviation." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbreviation. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"acronym." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/acronym. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Acronym and initialism." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym_and_initialism. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"abbreviation." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/abbreviation. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

Numbers

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"numeral." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/numeral. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Numbers." http://grammartips.wikispaces.com/Numbers. grammartips Wikispace CC BY-SA 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14979/14979-h/14979-h.htm. Public domain.

"Crunching Numbers | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/psd/74176687/. Flickr CC BY.

Italics

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"The Onion Spirit: Typography: Italics - When You Should Use Them." http://onionspirit.blogspot.com/2009/06/typography-italics-when-you-should-use.html. Blogspot CC BY-SA.

"Italic type." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_type%23When_to_use. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"emphasis." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/emphasis. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"italics." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/italics. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30666/30666-h/30666-h.htm%23Page_210. Public domain.

6: Writing Effective Sentences

6.1: The Importance of Wording

6.1.1: The Importance of Wording

Establishing the proper tone, choosing appropriate words, and using varied sentence structure improves academic writing.

Learning Objective

Distinguish between an objective and a subjective tone in writing.

Key Points

Tone is important in all writing. It conveys the author's attitude towards the topic. Diction (word choice) and syntax (writing style) influence tone. 

In academic writing, the tone should be formal and objective. The purpose of academic writing is to engage in a neutral rather than a subjective (or personal) dialog with the reader. 

The audience for a piece of writing should always be considered when establishing tone. In academic writing, the audience is assumed to be a general unknown reader who does not necessarily have an in-depth knowledge of the topic. Therefore, all information must be clearly explained so that a general reader can follow it.

Key Terms

denotation

The literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase.

connotation

The wide array of positive and negative associations a word or phrase evoke in the reader.

diction

A writer's distinctive choice of words.

syntax

The way in which words and phrases are put together.

tone

The writer's attitude towards the subject and the audience, especially as influenced by diction and syntax.

Examples

Objective tone: "A basic knowledge of wood anatomy and structure is vital to anyone seriously working with wood. A familiarity with the cellular structure of the tree leads to a better understanding of wood properties and behavior. What causes color, taste, and odor, and how does it affect wood's intended use? What is the difference between density and specific gravity, and how does this relate to the weight and hardness of wood? An in-depth understanding leads to a more intelligent use of this versatile material." —from With the Grain, by Christian Becksvoort, 2015. [Does this passage reflect a factual, informative tone, communicating questions and answers about wood?]

Subjective tone: "I always tell people if you want to work with wood, you've got to know what it is. You need to understand a tree's cells before you can know more about what wood is and how it acts. Believe it or not, I didn't know where those weird colors, tastes, and smells came from until I learned how all those things affected how we use wood. I didn't think density and specific gravity were important until I got how they related to wood's weight and hardness. The more you know, the smarter you'll be able to use this neat stuff called wood." [Does this passage refer mostly to the author and reflect a conversational tone, including his or her opinions?]

Syntax

Writing with variety can make your writing distinctive and interesting. This can be achieved by using varied syntax, or sentence structure. Writing consistently short sentences can make your writing sound choppy. Using longer, more complex sentences can make your writing difficult to read and may bog the reader down. Additionally, sentence structure within a sentence can impact your reader's response. While you don't want to use too much variety in your sentences, knowing different ways to structure sentences is important. For example, here are a few different ways to begin your sentences: 

Prepositional phrase: Out of necessity, the nonprofit animal society held its first fundraising event this year.  

Sentence connective: Many organizations struggle with attendance for a new fundraising event. But the nonprofit animal society had tremendous success with their first pet show. 

Appositive: A noted botanist, Jane Doe was named a Distinguished Fellow of the Botanical Society of America in 2013. 

Adverbial clause: Suddenly, Jane Doe found herself among the most famous botanists of her generation. 

Academic writing should demonstrate an understanding of how to write effectively. When done correctly, using short and long sentences that start differently adds professionalism to your writing.

Diction

Syntax focuses primarily on sentence structure, while diction concerns the words contained in sentences. In academic writing, choosing the proper words impacts your argument as well as your credibility. Knowing the difference between the denotation, or literal meaning of words, and connotation, or the wide range of thoughts and impressions made by words or phrases, will improve academic writing. You may be unaware of the connotation of some words in addition to their literal meaning. Strengthen your diction by ensuring you know the full range of meaning of the words you use. Avoid overly informal diction as well, as these words are often less specific or simply not appropriate for academic writing.

Example:

The denotation of home is a location where a person or group resides.

The connotation of home varies from person to person. Most people view home with comfort, security, fond memories or affection.

Think of the difference in the words "domicile" vs. "home." Both words mean "place of residence" in the dictionary but they communicate very different feelings. Domicile might be the best choice of term for a paper in law or real estate classes. Home might be a better choice for a sociology or childhood education paper.

Tone

Writing with variety can aid in developing the appropriate tone and hold your reader's attention. Tone shows the writer's attitude towards the subject and the audience. The writer's tone can influence the reader's response to the writing. In academic writing, it's important to maintain an appropriate tone throughout. Writers can do this by paying attention to syntax and diction.

Attributions

The Importance of Wording

"The Denotation and Connotation of a Word." http://www.lavc.edu/0-Kentico-Training/document-library/docs/Denotation-and-Connotation-of-a-Word-(2).aspx. Academic Resource Center Los Angeles Valley College CC BY-SA.

"Style, Diction, Tone and Voice." http://www.wheaton.edu/Academics/Services/Writing-Center/Writing-Resources/Style-Diction-Tone-and-Voice. Wheaton College Writing Resources CC BY-SA.

6.2: Word Choice

6.2.1: Precision

You can increase the clarity of your writing by using concrete, specific words rather than abstract, general ones.

Learning Objective

Classify words as specific or general

Key Points

When possible, replace vague generalizations with more specific and concise wording. This clarifies for your reader the topic of your paper and the conceptual plane of your ensuing argument.

You can increase the clarity of your writing by using specific words rather than general ones.

Your objective when choosing words is not to avoid general words altogether, but rather to avoid using them when your readers will want more specific ones.

Key Terms

general words

All-inclusive words from a broader scope.

specific words

Precise words from a narrower scope.

Through precise word selection, you can increase the clarity of your argument by enabling your readers to grasp your intended meaning quickly and accurately. At the same time, it is important to keep in mind that your word choices affect a reader's attitudes toward your presentation and your subject matter. Therefore, you also need to choose words that will convey your ideas clearly to your readers. This kind of precise writing will help your audience understand your argument. 

General vs. Specific Words

Almost anything can be described either in general words or in specific ones. General words and specific words are not opposites. General words cover a broader spectrum with a single word than specific words. Specific words narrow the scope of your writing by providing more details. For example, "car" is a general term that could be made more specific by writing "Honda Accord." Specific words are a subset of general words. You can increase the clarity of your writing by choosing specific words over general words. Specific words help your readers understand precisely what you mean in your writing. Here's an example of general and specific words in a sentence:

General: She said, "I don't want you to go."

Specific: She murmured, "I don't want you to go."

The words "said" and "murmured" are similar. They both are a form of verbal communication. However, "murmured" gives the sentence a different feeling from "said." Thus, as a writer, choosing specific words over general words can add description to and change the mood of your writing.  

In academic writing, it is important to find a balance between general and specific words. Always using specific terms can overwhelm the reader and detract from your argument. Also, depending on what you are writing, general terms may be more appropriate than specific words. In scientific, technical, and other specialized fields, writers often need to make general points, describe general circumstances, or provide general guidance for action. For example, if you are writing a paper on best practices in business, you may write one of the following sentences:

In the normal course of procedure, it is advised to avoid modifications in hiring procedures after they have been established.

Normally, it is best to avoid changing hiring processes after they have been established.  

Both of these sentences make the same statement, but they may not both be appropriate for your paper. Writing with precision helps hold your audience's attention. Making statements too wordy in an argument can be dull for your readers. Think of your audience while writing. Sometimes it is best to keep your writing simple and precise. The more precise your writing is, the easier it will be for your reader to understand your argument. Your objective when choosing words is to blend general and specific words together within your writing when appropriate, ensuring you keep your reader's attention while conveying your message. 

6.2.2: Using the Dictionary and Thesaurus Effectively

Because words can differ depending on their context, it is a good idea to check the definition and spelling of any tricky words in a dictionary.

Learning Objective

Select appropriate tools to help with word choice

Key Points

Spell-check features in word processors are helpful tools, but they will not catch all mistakes.

A thesaurus can add variety to dry prose by helping you identify words with similar meanings.

Always use a dictionary to confirm the meaning of any word about which you are unsure.

Diction is important because it refers to the writer's or speaker's distinctive vocabulary choices and style, and it impacts word choice and syntax.

Key Terms

thesaurus

A publication, usually in the form of a book, that provides synonyms (and sometimes antonyms) for the words of a given language.

dictionary

A reference work with a list of words from one or more languages, normally ordered alphabetically and explaining each word's meaning and sometimes containing information on its etymology, usage, translations, and other data.

Using the Dictionary and Thesaurus Effectively 

Always use a dictionary to confirm the meaning of any word about which you are unsure. Although the built-in dictionary that comes with your word processor is a great time-saver, it falls far short of college-edition dictionaries, or the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). If the spell-check tool suggests bizarre corrections for one of your words, it could be that you know a word it does not. When in doubt, always check a dictionary to be sure.

Vocabulary Choice and Style

If it feels like you keep repeating a word throughout your writing, pull out a thesaurus for ideas on different, more creative choices. A thesaurus can add some color and depth to a piece that may otherwise seem repetitive and mundane. However, make sure that the word you substitute has the meaning you intend to convey. Thesauruses provide words with similar meanings, not identical meanings. If you are unsure about the precise meaning of a replacement word, look up the new word in a dictionary.

Word Accuracy

Regardless of the words you use, you must use them accurately. Usage errors can distract readers from your argument. How can you ensure that words are used accurately? Unfortunately, there is no easy way, but there are some solutions. You can revisit a text that uses the word and observe how the word is used in that instance. Additionally, you can consult a dictionary whenever you are uncertain. Be especially careful when using words that are not yet part of your usual vocabulary.

Connotation 

Connotation is the extended or suggested meaning of a word beyond its literal meaning. For example, "flatfoot" and "police detective" are often thought to be synonyms, but they connote very different things: "flatfoot" suggests a plodding, perhaps not very bright cop, while "police detective" suggests an intelligent professional.

Verbs, too, have connotations. For instance, to "suggest" that someone has overlooked a key fact is not the same as to "insinuate" it. To "devote" your time to working on a client's project is not the same as to "spend" your time on it. The connotations of your words can shape your audience's perception of your argument. For example:

Our sales team is constantly trying to locate new markets for our various product lines.

Our sales team is constantly driving to locate new markets for our various product lines.

Register 

"Register" refers to a word's association with certain situations or contexts. In a restaurant ad, for example, we might expect to see the claim that it offers "amazingly delicious food." However, we would not expect to see a research company boast in a proposal for a government contract that it is capable of conducting "amazingly good studies." Here, the word "amazingly" is in the register of consumer advertising, but not in the register of research proposals.

Being aware of the connotation and register of the words you choose in your writing will help increase your writing's clarity.

Attributions

Precision

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Professional and Technical Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style%23Selecting_Words. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

Using the Dictionary and Thesaurus Effectively

"abstract." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/abstract. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Diction." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diction. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"connotation." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/connotation. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"thesaurus." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thesaurus. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"dictionary." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dictionary. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Basic Writing/Proofreading." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Basic_Writing/Proofreading%23Common_Errors_and_Correction_Strategies. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

6.3: Tone

6.3.1: Appropriate Language

The goal of academic writing is to present and articulate an argument to your readers.

Learning Objective

Distinguish between simple and complex language

Key Points

Avoid writing that is pretentious and jargon heavy.

In your writing, strive for clarity by using appropriate and concise language. This will make your overall argument much clearer for your reader.

Longer words and sentences may confuse your readers, or can make the writing sound arrogant.

Key Terms

cliché

An expression, idea, or element of an artistic work which, although considered meaningful at some earlier time, has now become overused to the point of losing its original meaning or effect, even to the point of being trite or irritating.

colloquial

Denoting a manner of speaking or writing that is characteristic of familiar conversation; informal.

first person

A form of narrative writing using words in a way that gives the impression that the action is happening to the narrator.

jargon

Technical terminology unique to a particular subject.

argument

An attempt to persuade someone of something by giving reasons or evidence for accepting a particular conclusion. 

Based on the kind of language that readers encounter in a given piece of writing, a reader will draw conclusions about the writer that can enhance or distract from the persuasiveness of the argument. The writer's tone, which is conveyed through word choice and sentence structure, impacts the reader's response. The writer's tone should be contingent on the type of writing. Academic writing should be more formal than personal writing. This formality is often conveyed through tone. Formal writing requires choosing words that are meaningful to the members of your audience. The ability to craft and control language is essential to writing effectively. Effective language matches the reader's sense of what is appropriate for a given topic. Given that readers of academic papers expect a more formal level of interaction with a topic than do readers of popular writing, they expect a certain level of technical prose. Nonetheless, one should avoid unnecessarily complicated language, jargon, and clichés. It is important to remember that complicated ideas can be expressed clearly. Additionally, the use of first person in academic writing can be appropriate in certain situations. 

The Use of Simple Language

The goal of academic writing is to present and articulate an argument. While utilizing a large vocabulary can be helpful in terms of explaining complicated ideas in different ways, one does not want to complicate the language of a text. While contractions and colloquial words and phrases often make writing sound informal, the use of shorter words does not necessarily indicate an informal style. In fact, many writers prefer simpler language as it can help to clearly convey difficult ideas or concepts. Longer words and sentences may confuse your readers, or can make the writing sound arrogant. Here is an example:

Overly complicated: The process of narrativization makes present, within a realm of the imaginary, a social and historical awareness that is unavailable within simple, material facticity.

The process of narrativization makes present, within a realm of the imaginary, a social and historical awareness that is unavailable within simple, material facticity

The title demonstrates an example of a sentence that is pretentious and jargon heavy. Avoiding pretentious writing and defining any technical jargon will endow your writing with a clarity that readers will appreciate.

Simplified: Narratives demonstrate something about the world from which they emerge, despite being classified as fiction.

It's a good rule of thumb, even in academic work, to err on the side of simplicity rather than linguistic ornamentation. In other words, avoid using needlessly inflated words that bloat your prose and distract your readers from your central argument. The goal is formal writing, not extravagant and flowery writing. 

Jargon

Jargon is language that is used in a particular context and may not be well understood outside of that context (e.g. language specific to a particular profession). In some situations, specialized terms can help you communicate effectively. They convey precise, technical meanings economically insofar as many specialized terms have no exact equivalent in everyday speech. They can also help you establish credibility in your field by showing that you are familiar with established conventions.

Still, while there are situations where the use of jargon is appropriate, in academic writing, it's best to consider the audience first. 

Defining Terms for New Audiences

Formal writing may require using specialized terms even though some people in your audience may not understand them. For instance, you may be writing to a group of readers that includes people in your field and others outside of it, or you may be explaining an entirely new subject to your readers. In such cases, there are several ways to define the terms for readers who are not familiar with them:

1. Give a synonym:

On a boat, a rope or cord is called a line.

2. Give a description:

The exit gate consists of tow arms that hold a jug while it is being painted and then allow it to proceed down the production line.

3. Make an analogy:

An atom is like a miniature solar system in which the nucleus is the sun and the electrons are the planets that revolve around it.

4. Give a classical definition, wherein you define the term by naming some familiar group of things to which it belongs and then identifying the key distinction between the object being defined and the other members of the group.

A burrow is a hole in the ground dug by an animal for shelter or habitation.

Clichés

A cliché is an expression, idea, or element of an artistic work which has become overused to the point of losing its original meaning, or effect, and even to the point of being trite or irritating, especially when at some earlier time it was considered meaningful or novel. While clichés have a certain usefulness insofar as they can quickly communicate familiar ideas, they are rarely appropriate in formal writing. The reason we want to avoid using clichés in academic writing is that they tend to be ambiguous and can come off as overly colloquial and informal.

Using the First Person in Academic Writing 

Teachers or professors may have told you to take out any first-person references to yourself in formal writing, particularly within persuasive papers where you are trying to convince a reader to take a specific position on a given topic. While this is not an absolute rule, it is important to understand why you have been told to avoid using subjective language, such as "I," "me," or "my." 

The primary reason that subjective language should be avoided is to improve how a reader perceives the argument you are presenting. Some forms of nonfiction writing, such as essayistic writing, are enhanced by the use of subjective language, which introduces the author as a presence within the text. Frequently, this use of subjective language can imbue the writing with a quality that many feel should be absent from argumentative papers. The use of first-person pronouns demonstrates how the author's biographical particulars enhance or expose something significant about the topic that they are writing about. However, formal papers, such as those written for college or graduate courses, tend to contain an argumentative structure in which objective language is used to make claims with evidence leading to a particular conclusion. 

Using objective language helps shift your presence as a writer into the background in order to foreground the particulars of the argument that you are presenting. This can assist readers in smoothly following the trajectory of your argument toward a particular conclusion, as opposed to being constantly interrupted in order to be reminded that these are your thoughts or opinions. Omitting first-person pronouns from your writing aids in developing a formal tone within your argument. 

Attributions

Appropriate Language

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"cliche." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cliche. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"colloquial." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/colloquial. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"jargon." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jargon. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Professional and Technical Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/29607/29607-h/29607-h.htm. Public domain.

6.4: Diction

6.4.1: Gender-Neutral Language

Gender neutrality in language minimizes assumptions about the gender or sex of people referred to in writing or speech.

Learning Objective

Give examples of gender-neutral language

Key Points

Gender neutrality in English aims to minimize assumptions about the gender or biological sex of people referred to in speech.

Proponents of gender-neutral language argue that the use of gender-specific language often implies male superiority or reflects an unequal state of society.

Proponents of gender-neutral language claim that linguistic clarity, as well as equality, would be better served by having "man" refer unambiguously to males, and "human" to all persons.

Proposed alternatives to the generic "he" include "he or she," "s/he," or the use of "they" in the singular.

In some cases, when writing or speaking about a person whose gender is unknown, ambiguous, or unimportant, gender-neutral language may be achieved by using gender-inclusive, gender-neutral, or epicene words in place of gender-specific ones.

Gender-neutral language may also be achieved by parallel usage of existing gender-specific terms.

Key Terms

gender-neutral language

Used to eliminate (or neutralize) references to gender when describing people.

epicene

Refers to the loss of gender distinction, often specifically the loss of masculinity.

singular they

A pronoun that is gender neutral and refers to a single person when paired appropriately with a gender-neutral antecedent. 

Gender-neutral language is neither masculine nor feminine and avoids using gender specific pronouns such as "he" or "she." The purpose of gender neutrality in writing is to minimize assumptions about the gender or sex of people.

The Importance of Gender-Neutral Language

Proponents of gender-neutral language argue that gender-specific language (such as policeman or waitress) often implies male superiority or reflects an unequal state of society. According to The Handbook of English Linguistics, generic masculine pronouns (such as he) and gender-specific language serve as examples of how, historically, society has treated men as the standard for all humans. Words referring to women often devolve in meaning, and frequently take on sexual overtones. In essence, the use of masculine pronouns when referring to subjects of mixed or indeterminate gender is frowned upon in academic writing. The following sentence is a good illustration of avoiding sexist language by using the gender neutral "humanity" and "human" rather than the gender-specific "mankind": "Since then, humanity has entered a new phase of spiritual development, an evolution of high faculties, the very existence of which in human nature our ancestors scarcely suspected." Using gender-neutral pronouns avoids presumptions of male superiority. 

Guidelines for Gender-Neutral Language

In most cases of writing or speaking about a person whose gender is unknown, ambiguous, or irrelevant, gender-neutral language may be achieved through the use of gender-inclusive, gender-neutral, or epicene words (having characteristics of both sexes) in place of gender-specific ones. If no gender-inclusive terms exist, new ones may be coined. It is also important to consider parallel usage of existing gender-specific terms. 

When possible and contextually appropriate, use nouns and pronouns that are gender-neutral rather than gender-specific.

Instead of: waitress; businessman; workman; mailman

Use: server; businessperson; worker; mail carrier

Instead of: mankind; man-made; man hours; man-sized job

Use: humankind; synthetic; working hours; large job

When referring to people in general, use plural pronouns "s/he" or "he or she" instead of gender-linked pronouns.

Instead of: She looks for premium products and appreciates a stylish design.

Use: They look for premium products and appreciate a stylish design.

Instead of: Before a new business-owner files tax returns, he should seek advice from a certified public accountant.

Use: Before a new business-owner files tax returns, she or he should seek advice from a certified public accountant.

When a singular pronoun is needed, use the "singular they" with a singular antecedent. In these examples, the antecedents are "the patient" and "someone."

 Instead of: The patient should be informed of how much he will need to pay prior to the procedure. 

Use: The patient should be informed of how much they will need to pay prior to the procedure. 

Instead of: Someone left his lunch in the break-room microwave.

Use: Someone left their lunch in the break-room microwave. 

When in doubt, use gender-neutral salutations.

Instead of: Dear Sir; Dear Gentlemen

Use: Dear Personnel Department; Dear Switzer Plastics Corporation; Dear Director of Research

Additionally, many editing houses, corporations, and government bodies have official policies favoring in-house use of gender-neutral language. In some cases, laws exist to enforce the use of gender-neutral language in certain situations, such as job advertisements. Different authorities have presented guidelines on when and how to use gender-neutral, or "non-sexist" language. Several are listed below:

The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association has an oft-cited section on "Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language."

American Philosophical Association—published in 1986

The Guardian—see section called "gender issues"

"Avoiding Heterosexual Bias in Language," published by the Committee on Lesbian and Gay Concerns, American Psychological Association.

6.4.2: Active Voice vs. Passive Voice

In grammar, "voice" refers to the relationship between the subject and the verb—that is to say, how the action is performed.

Learning Objective

Classify sentences as active or passive

Key Points

In active voice, the subject performs the action of the verb. A clause with an active, transitive verb will follow a pattern of subject-verb-object—for example, "The dog [subject] eats [verb] the food [object]."

A sentence in active voice will have different emphasis, and thus a slightly different tone, than if the same sentence were written in passive voice.

Try to use active voice unless there is a reason to use passive voice.

Key Terms

passive voice

A sentence construction in which the verb's action is performed, in some cases "by" a subject.

active voice

A sentence construction in which a subject performs the action of the verb.

voice

In grammar, the relationship between the subject and the verb—i.e., how the action is performed.

In grammar, "voice" refers to the relationship between the subject and the verb—that is to say, how the action is performed. Active voice emphasizes the subject as the one performing the action. In contrast, passive voice deemphasizes the subject as performer and instead frames the subject as receiving the action.

Which voice you choose to use should depend on the type of writing and your audience. The active voice is more frequently used in non-scientific writing. Since it usually uses fewer words, it is more succinct and clearer than the passive voice. However, only using the passive voice in scientific writing can make it dry and bog down the reader. Choosing the proper voice will set the tone for your writing, but keep in mind that most writing will include both active and passive voice. 

Let's take a look at some examples.

Active and Passive Voice

In a sentence written in active voice, the subject's role in performing the action of the verb is emphasized. These sentences will generally follow the pattern of subject–verb–object (or simply subject–verb, for intransitive verbs—i.e., for verbs that don't need an object):

The student [subject] finishes [verb] the exercise [object].

Fred [subject] ate [verb] his sandwich [object].

Eve [subject] survived [verb, no object needed].

In a sentence written in passive voice, the subject's role in performing the action of the verb is deemphasized. Instead, passive voice frames the subject as receiving the action. Passive voice is the opposite of active voice, so sentences in passive voice tend to follow the reverse pattern of object–verb–subject, and the word "by" often shows up between the verb and the subject:

The exercise [object] was finished [verb] by the student [subject].

The sandwich [object] was eaten [verb] by Fred [subject].

In most sentences in passive voice, you will see the word "by" between the verb and the subject. In fact, a rule of thumb for recognizing passive voice if you see the construction "was/is [verb]ed by" (for verbs like finished or started) or "was/is [verb]en by" (for verbs like eaten and forgotten).

Most sentences can be phrased to be in either active or passive voice. For example:

Active voice: The teacher sent the student to the principal's office.

Passive voice: The student was sent to the principal's office by the teacher.

Which one you choose may not significantly change the meaning of the sentence, but it will likely change its tone and emphasis. It is important to understand the connotations of both active and passive voice, therefore, so your sentences don't sound odd or out of context.

That said, sentences with intransitive verbs—verbs that do not take direct objects—cannot be passivized because there is no object to put before the verb. For example:

Millions of people lived.

We arrived yesterday.

Shelly will be asleep.

Try to put these in passive voice (in the order object–verb–subject): "[Blank] was lived by millions of people." It doesn't make sense! Intransitive verbs can never be used in passive voice.

Most of the Time, Use Active Voice

Active voice is generally more direct and neutral than passive voice. Passive voice tends to sound evasive, like the writer is trying to avoid blame for whoever performed an action, or academic, like a dry science report. Active voice is generally more effective at capturing the reader's attention. For example, 

Passive voice: The ball was hit by Linda. 

Active voice: Linda hit the ball.

Passive: The theme that was most commonly addressed by 17th-century writers was ...

Active: 17th-century writers most commonly addressed the theme of ... 

The use of active voice is more direct and provides information about who performed the action.

Guidelines for Avoiding Passive Voice

Avoid sentences that use the verb "to be" or its variations (is, was, will be). The verb "to be" often describes what something is rather than what it does.

Avoid beginning sentences with "It is …" or "There are …"

Avoid sentences where the action is frozen in a word that ends with one of the following suffixes: -tion; -ment; -ing; -ion; -ance. These words mute the action that the verb should communicate by turning them into nouns.

Using Passive Voice Effectively

All that said, passive voice certainly has its uses—you just need to be smart about when you use it! For example:

"Hamlet was written by Shakespeare." Here, the passive voice emphasizes "Shakespeare," the most important part of the sentence.

"Jamey was fascinated by language arts." The passive-voice construction of this sentence emphasizes "Jamey" more effectively than the active-voice equivalent.

"Smoking is strictly prohibited." Because a passive verb consists of two words, an adverb (like strictly) is accentuated when placed between "to be" and the past participle.

When Writing a Research Paper

In particular, scientific research writing often requires that the writer deemphasize themselves as the performer of the action. This makes the language more objective; in theory, an experiment should happen the same way and have the same results no matter who conducts it. For example:

Active voice: I found that the frog population decreased by 10% last year.

Passive voice: It was found that the frog population decreased by 10% last year.

When Talking about General Rules

Passive voice is also often used when talking about general rules, to make it clear that the performer is less important than the action. For example:

Active voice: The landlord expects the rent check on the first of the month.

Passive: The rent check will be collected on the first of the month.

Passive voice can also be used to make rules or expectations sound less harsh. For example:

Active voice: Do not smoke.

Passive voice: Smoking is prohibited.

Knowing the different uses of voice is as important in writing as in singing

The majority of your sentences should be in active voice. However, there are also effective uses of passive voice; when used sparingly, it can give particular sentences special emphasis.

6.4.3: Concision

It is important to keep sentences concise; the longer and more complex a sentence gets, the harder it is for a reader to understand.

Learning Objective

Distinguish between concise and wordy sentences

Key Points

Make your writing more forceful, memorable, and persuasive by making it concise.

Concise writing is clear and reader-friendly, increasing your reader's ability to understand your argument.

Avoid padding your writing with extra words or lengthening sentences and paragraphs to meet a word count for an assignment.

Match your vocabulary to your reader and your writing task. Avoid using elevated or flowery language to sound impressive.

Key Term

concision

Brevity, or the practice of using no more words than necessary to describe an idea.

Simplifying Sentences

Varying sentence lengths and types of sentences can help to break up otherwise tedious prose blocks. However, it is important to keep in mind that the longer and more complex a sentence gets, the more difficult it can be for a reader to interpret that sentence. Take this paragraph as an example:

The author of the novel illustrated various differences between the characters. The novel, which was a romantic novel, portrayed characters in devious sorts of ways in which they did things that were very deceptive. The two main characters, April and Jamil, were never definitely and completely honest with each other, which led to the final outcome of their divorce. This outcome, which left them both miserable as they still loved one another, is designed in a way to show the readers just exactly how the novelist feels about lying in relationships.

This paragraph is quite wordy and takes longer than necessary to make its point. Let's break it up into shorter sentences and omit unnecessary words:

The romantic novelist portrayed the main characters as devious. April and Jamil were in love, but they were never honest with each other, and ultimately they got a divorce. This shows us how the novelist feels about lying. 

This is much clearer! Students often make the mistake of using more words than necessary because they think it will impress their reader or professor. However, instructors and other readers easily see through this, and they usually just want you to get your point across! Always consider your reader, and make your writing easy for them to grasp.

Revising for Concision

Consider the following general guidelines. These are good rules to keep in mind when you are revising your paper for concision.

Eliminate Words

Eliminate unnecessary words. Keep an eye out for places where you can convey your meaning more directly. For example:

Original: The physical size of the workroom is too small to accommodate this equipment.

Revised: The workroom is too small for this equipment.

The physical size of the workroom is too small to accommodate this equipment

Though the title communicates the necessary information about this image, it uses too many words to do so. A simplified version of the sentence is: "The workroom is too small for this equipment." Look for places in your own writing where you can remove unnecessary words to make your writing more concise and efficient. Your readers will appreciate it!

Also, try to avoid the following phrases, which are redundant and have more concise alternatives:

absolutely essential

in my personal opinion

basic fundamentals

past memories

each and every

small in size

first and foremost

very unique

Combine Short, Choppy Sentences

After you eliminate unnecessary words, you may find yourself with much shorter sentences, so your paper may now feel choppy. Combine these short sentences to improve flow and clarify your train of thought. The single combined sentence may be longer than each of the two original sentences, but overall you are using fewer words and communicating your point more clearly.

Original: Water quality in Fairfield declined in March. This decline occurred because of the heavy rainfall that month. All the extra water overloaded Tomlin County's water treatment plant.

Revised: Water quality in Fairfield declined in March because heavy rainfall overloaded Tomlin County's water treatment plant.

Additional Examples

Example 1

Original: According to optimal quality-control practices in manufacturing any product, it is important that every component part that is constituent of the product be examined and checked individually after being received from its supplier or other source but before the final, finished product is assembled. (45 words)

Revised: Effective quality control requires that every component be checked individually before the final product is assembled. (16 words)

Example 2

Original: Over the most recent monthly period, there has been a large increase in the number of complaints that customers have made about service that has been slow. (27 words)

Revised: Last month, many more customers than usual complained about slow service. (11 words)

Attributions

Gender-Neutral Language

"Gender neutrality in English." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_English. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Singular They." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_they. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Epicene." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicene. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Gender-inclusive language." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender-inclusive%20language. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Professional and Technical Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style%23Guideline_7:_Ethics_Guideline:_Use_Inclusive_Language. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

Active Voice vs. Passive Voice

"voice." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/voice. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"active voice." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/active_voice. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Professional and Technical Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style%23Constructing_Sentences. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"passive voice." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/passive_voice. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Active and Passive Voice." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Active_and_Passive_Voice. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"All sizes | [Portrait of June Christy and Red Rodney, Club Troubadour, New York, N.Y., ca. Sept. 1947] (LOC) | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/library_of_congress/4888673630/sizes/l/in/photostream/. Flickr Public domain.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/39691/39691-h/39691-h.htm. Public domain.

Concision

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Professional and Technical Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style%23Guideline_1:_Simplify_Your_Sentences. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"concision." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/concision. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"modifier." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/modifier. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21660/21660-h/21660-h.htm. Public domain.

7: Writing Effective Paragraphs

7.1: Organizing Your Ideas

7.1.1: Topic Sentences

Separating your main points into different paragraphs allows the reader to feel the cumulative effects of the mounting evidence for your claim.

Learning Objective

Choose the best topic sentence to begin a paragraph

Key Points

Introduce each paragraph with a topic sentence that tells your audience what you will argue in that paragraph. By providing readers with expectations at the beginning of the paragraph, you help them understand and keep track of the overall structure of your argument.

Each topic sentence should make a distinct point in support of your thesis statement.

A paragraph should make only one claim and should contain all the necessary evidence for that claim. This is key to making an argument flow smoothly and thus persuading the reader to understand your point.

Evidence and examples are best used as support within a paragraph rather than as a topic sentence.

Key Terms

thesis statement

Often found at the end of the first paragraph of an essay or similar document, it summarizes the main points and arguments of the author.

paragraph

A passage in a text about a subject that is different from that of the preceding text, marked by commencing on a new line, with the first line sometimes being indented.

claim

A new statement of truth made about something, usually when the statement has yet to be verified.

topic sentence

A statement of the main idea of the paragraph in which it occurs.

When you created the outline, you wrote a thesis statement and then all the claims you are using to support it. You then organized your research, finding the evidence to support each claim. You'll be very grateful to have done that sorting now that you're ready to write paragraphs. Each of these claims will become a topic sentence, and that sentence, along with the evidence supporting it, will become a paragraph in the body of the paper.

Paragraph Structure

Each paragraph is a self-contained portion of your argument. Each paragraph will begin by making a claim (the topic sentence) that connects back to the thesis. The body of the paragraph will present the evidence, reasoning, and conclusions that pertain to that claim. Usually, paragraphs will end by connecting their claim to the larger argument or by setting up the claim that the next paragraph will contain.

Topic sentence: summarizes the main idea of the paragraph; presents a claim that supports your thesis.

Supporting sentences: provide examples, details, and explanations that support the topic sentence (and claim).

Concluding sentence: gives the paragraph closure by relating the claim back to the topic sentence and thesis statement.

Paragraphs should be used to develop one idea at a time. If you have a lot of ideas and claims to address, you may be tempted to combine related claims into the same paragraph. Don't do it! Combining different points in the same paragraph will divide your reader's attention and dilute your argument. If you have too many claims, choose the strongest ones to expand into paragraphs, or research the counterarguments to see which of your claims speak most powerfully to those.

By dedicating each paragraph to only one part of your argument, you will give the reader time to fully evaluate and understand each claim before going on to the next one. Think of paragraphs as ways of guiding your reader's attention—by giving them a single topic, you force them to focus on it. When you direct their focus, they will have a much easier time following your argument.

Creating Topic Sentences

Every paragraph of your argument should begin with a topic sentence that tells the reader what the paragraph will address—that is, what that paragraph's claim is. By providing the reader with expectations at the start of the paragraph, you help him or her understand where you are going and how the paragraph fits in with the overall structure of your argument. Topic sentences should always connect back to and support your thesis statement.

Things to Avoid Doing in Your Topic Sentence

Referring to the Paper or Paragraph Itself

You needn't say directly, "This paragraph is about ..." You don't want your reader reminded that he or she is reading a paper. The focus should be on the argument. This kind of announcement is like riding with training wheels in the Tour de France. You don't really need this crutch, and seeing it in a paper can be somewhat startling to the reader, who's expecting a professional presentation.

Offering Evidence or an Example

"On one occasion, another EMT and I were held at gunpoint." Stick with your claim in your topic sentence, and let the rest of the paragraph address the evidence and offer examples. Keep it clear by stating the topic and the main idea. "Twenty-first century emergency-services personnel face an ever-increasing number of security challenges compared to those working fifty to a hundred years ago."

Not Being Specific Enough

"Cooking is difficult." The topic may relate to your thesis statement, but you'll need to be more specific here. For whom is cooking difficult, and why? "While there are food pantries in place in some low-income areas, many recipients of these goods have neither the time nor the resources to make nutritionally sound meals from what they receive." (Stylistically speaking, if you wanted to include "Cooking is difficult," you could make it the first sentence, followed by the topic sentence. It just shouldn't be the topic sentence.)

Papers

Well-structured paragraphs make your paper easier to understand and more enjoyable for your readers.

Attributions

Topic Sentences

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"thesis statement." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thesis%20statement. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"paragraph." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paragraph. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"claim." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/claim. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"How to Write an Essay/Parts." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_Write_an_Essay/Parts. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"All sizes | Grading Papers At The Bar | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/rexroof/268845025/sizes/o/in/photostream/. Flickr CC BY.

7.2: Connecting Your Ideas

7.2.1: Transitions, Signal Phrases, and Pointing Words

Transitions connect your ideas and make it easier for your readers to follow your thought process.

Learning Objective

Identify situations where transition words are needed

Key Points

The first step in writing a clear paper is creating separate paragraphs for each idea that supports the paper's main thesis.

Transitions can make connections between different paragraphs or between sentences within the same paragraph.

Pointing words connect the content from one part of the paper and relate it to another part.

A signal phrase alerts the reader that the writer is about to cite evidence from an outside source.

Key Terms

signal phrases

A sentence or phrase alerting the reader that the upcoming information is not the writer's but is from an outside source.

pointing words

A term, such as "this" or "that," referring back something or someone mentioned earlier in the text.

transition

A word or phrase connecting one part of a discourse to another.

In expository writing, each paragraph should articulate a single main idea that relates directly to the thesis statement. This construction creates a feeling of unity, making the paper feel cohesive and purposeful. Connections between ideas—both between sentences and between paragraphs—should enhance that sense of cohesion.

Following the parts of a poorly constructed argument can feel like climbing a rickety ladder. Transition words and phrases support the rungs and rails, smoothing the journey of reading your paper so it feels more like climbing a wide, comfortable staircase.  Remember, though, that transitions are more than just words and phrases; if you're having trouble coming up with transitions between paragraphs, revisit your essay's overall structure to make sure your ideas themselves are arranged in a logical order, with no repetitions or missing steps.  

Why Use Transitions?

Using transitions will make your writing easier to understand by providing connections between paragraphs or between sentences within a paragraph. A transition can be a word, phrase, or sentence—in longer works, they can even be a whole paragraph. The goal of a transition is to clarify for your readers exactly how your ideas are connected.

Transitions refer to both the preceding and ensuing sentence, paragraph, or section of a written work. They remind your readers of what they just read, and tell them what will come next. By doing so, transitions help your writing feel like a unified whole.

Transitions Between Paragraphs

In Topic Sentences

Using transitions in your topic sentences can explain to the reader how one paragraph relates to the previous one. Consider this set of topic sentences from a paper about metrical variation in the poem "Caliban Upon Setebos":

Paragraph one: "Browning begins the poem by establishing a correspondence between metrical variation and subversive language."

Paragraph two: "Once Caliban begins his exploration of the nature of Setebos, though, the pattern established earlier in the poem begins to break down."

Paragraph three: "Browning further subverts the metrical conventions established in the opening stanza by … switching to iambic pentameter when acknowledging that unmotivated events can and do occur."

The transitions help the reader understand how the argument is progressing throughout the paper, beginning with the poem's basic meter, then explaining different ways in which the pattern shifts. The word "though" in the second topic sentence lets the reader know that the pattern explained in the first paragraph is going to change in the second paragraph. The use of "further" in the third topic sentence alerts the reader that the pattern is shifting again in the third paragraph. These simple words are the handrail for the steps the reader is climbing.

In Concluding Sentences

A paragraph's concluding sentence also offers an excellent opportunity to begin the transition to the next paragraph—to wrap up one idea and hint at the next.

You can use a question to signal a shift:

It's clear, then, that the band's biggest selling original compositions were written early in their career, but what do we know about their later works?

Alternatively, you could conclude by comparing the idea in the current paragraph with the idea in the next:

While the Democratic Republic of Congo is rich in natural resources, it has led a troubled political existence.

An "if–then" structure is a common transition technique in concluding sentences:

If we are decided that climate change is now unavoidable, then steps must be taken to avert complete disaster.

Here, you're relying on the point you've just proven in this paragraph to serve as a springboard for the next paragraph's main idea.

Transitions Within Paragraphs

Transitions within a paragraph help readers to anticipate what is coming before they read it. Within paragraphs, transitions tend to be single words or short phrases. Words like while, however, nevertheless, but, and similarly, as well as phrases like on the other hand and for example, can serve as transitions between sentences and ideas. See the "List of Common Transitional Devices" below for more examples.

Pointing Words

Pointing words let you refer back to complex ideas concisely. Also called "hooks," these words scoop up the information just offered and link it to other information in the paper. Let's look at an example:

There is nothing overtly deviant about the poem's formal elements. But upon close examination, those intricacies of form are even more suggestive of a problem in the island hierarchy than is the content of Caliban's speech.

This is a concluding sentence, and the word "those" refers to the writer's argument laid out in the previous paragraphs. If the writer had instead written "the intricacies," we readers might not know to mentally link the previous argument with this statement. Using the word "those" is a gesture to include all the references to form that went before this paragraph.

Can you see how the pointing words (this, that, these, those) in the following examples serve to link one idea to the next, or to the main idea of the paper?

"For those reasons ..."

"This suggestion is further buoyed by ..."

"These facts clearly point to ..."

"That kind of reasoning only makes sense if ..."

Signal Phrases

Also within paragraphs, signal phrases alert the reader that he or she is about to read referenced material, such as a quotation, a summation of a study, or statistics verifying a claim. Ideally, your signal phrases will connect the idea of the paragraph to the information from the outside source.

"Jennifer Aaker of the Global Business School at Stanford University writes, in support of this idea, that ..."

"In fact, the United Nations Environmental Program found that ..."

"However, 'Recycling programs,' the Northern California Recycling Association retorts ..."

"As graph 3.2 illustrates, we can by no means be certain of the outcome."

Such phrases prepare the reader to receive information from an authoritative source and subconsciously signal the reader to process what follows as evidence in support of the point being made.

Here are some common signal-phrase verbs: acknowledges, adds, admits, argues, asserts, believes, claims, confirms, contends, declares, denies, disputes, emphasizes, grants, implies, insists, notes, observes, points out, reasons, refutes, rejects, reports, responds, suggests, thinks, writes.

Transition Paragraphs

In longer works, you might need an entire paragraph to connect the ideas presented in two separate sections. The purpose of a transitional paragraph is to summarize the information in the previous paragraph, and to tell your reader how it is related to the information in the next paragraph. Transition paragraphs are good places to review where you have been and how it relates to the next step of your argument.

Appropriate Use of Transition Words and Phrases

Before using a particular transitional word or phrase, be sure you completely understand its meaning and usage. For example, if you use a word or phrase that indicates addition ("moreover," "in addition," "further"), you must actually be introducing a new idea or piece of evidence. A common mistake with transitions is using such a word without actually adding an idea to the discussion. That confuses readers and puts them back on rickety footing, wondering if they missed something.

Whenever possible, stick with transition words that actually have meaning and purpose. Overusing transition words, or using them as filler, is distracting to the reader. "It is further concluded that," for example, sounds unnatural and a little grandiose because of the passive voice. "Also," or "Furthermore" would be clearer choices, less likely to make the reader's eyes roll.

With that said, here are some examples of transitional devices that might be useful once you've verified their appropriateness:

To indicate addition: and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, still, first (second, etc.).

"Strength of idea is indeed a factor in entrepreneurial success, but equally important is economic viability."

To indicate comparison: whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, although, conversely, in contrast, although this may be true, likewise, while, whilst, although, even though, on the one hand, on the other hand, in contrast, in comparison with, but, yet, alternatively, the former, the latter, respectively, all the same.

"In contrast to what we now consider his pedantic prose, his poetry seemed set free to express what lies in every human heart."

To indicate a logical connection: because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is.

"The Buddha sat under the bodhi tree for the same reason Jesus meditated in the desert: to vanquish temptation once and for all."

To show exception: yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes.

"Advocates of corporate tax incentives cite increased jobs in rural areas as an offset; still, is that sufficient justification for removing their financial responsibilities?

To show time: immediately, thereafter, soon, after a while, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then.

"First, the family suffered a devastating house fire that left them without any possessions, and soon thereafter learned that their passage to the New World had been revoked due to a clerical error."

To summarize or indicate repetition: in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted, as we have seen, to summarize.

"We have seen, then, that not only are rising temperatures and increased weather anomalies correlated with an increase in food and water shortages, but animal-migration patterns, too, appear to be affected."

To indicate emphasis: definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly, notwithstanding, only, still, it cannot be denied.

"Obviously, such a highly skilled architect would not usually be inclined to give his services away, and yet this man volunteered his services over and again to projects that paid him only through appreciation."

To indicate sequence: first, second, third, and so forth, next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently.

"So, finally, the author offers one last hint about the story's true subject: the wistful description of the mountains in the distance."

To indicate an example: for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, consider.

"Take, for example, the famous huckster P. T. Barnum, whose reputation as 'The Prince of Humbugs' belied his love and support of the finer things of life, like opera."

To qualify a statement: under no circumstances, mainly, generally, predominantly, usually, the majority, most of, almost all, a number of, some, a few, a little, fairly, very, quite, rather, almost.

"Generally, we can assume that this statement has merit, but in this specific case, it behooves us to dig deeper."

The transition of the sun

Transition words and phrases are used to make the shift from one idea to the next as smooth and seamless as the arc of the sun over the earth.

Attributions

Transitions, Signal Phrases, and Pointing Words

"Using Signal Words That Fit the Action." https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/summarizing-18/using-signal-verbs-that-fit-the-action-89-3254/. Boundless CC BY 4.0.

"Using Pointing Words." https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-3-boundless-presentation-620/connecting-your-ideas-635/using-pointing-words-637-58/. Boundless CC BY-SA 4.0.

"transition." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/transition. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Transitions in Essays." http://xiamenwriting.wikispaces.com/Transitions+in+Essays. xiamenwriting Wikispace CC BY-SA 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19103/19103-h/19103-h.htm. Public domain.

7.3: Keeping Your Writing Engaging

7.3.1: Varying Your Sentence Structure and Vocabulary

Effective writing includes variation of sentence structure, vocabulary, and other elements to keep the reader interested and engaged with the argument.

Learning Objective

Use varied sentence structure

Key Points

The tone, voice, and style of your writing are as important as the details you provide to support a thesis.

Papers will be boring for the reader if every sentence uses the same structure. Some of the best ways to vary sentence format are by adding and rearranging clauses. 

Sentence length, sentence structure, sentence type, tone, vocabulary, transition words, and types of evidence can all be varied so that your argument is more convincing and your points more compelling to the reader.

Key Terms

tone

The manner in which speech or writing is expressed.

clause

The smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete proposition.

Argumentation isn't just about what you say but how you say it. Even the most solid argument won't get far with a reader if the text isn't engaging. But how do we do that?

Perhaps the biggest secret to creating captivating writing is variation. Without it, your reader might fall asleep from boredom.

If you've ever been in a vibrant debate with someone you respected about beliefs you hold dear, you have a sense of just the kind of life we want to capture when we're writing. Learning, debating ideas, digging for the truth: these things are all fun! No need for "anyone" to be drooling on his desk.

If variation is key, what can we vary? We've discussed the importance of structure. Readers need to depend on the paper's structure to be able to follow the argument. The introduction, conclusion, body paragraphs with topic sentences and transitions are all essential. Within the structure, however, you can vary the following:

sentence length

sentence structure

sentence type

tone

vocabulary

transition words and categories

types of evidence

You'll want to have reasons for the choices you make. Adding random rhetorical questions will sound strange, but if you ask the right question at the right time, it will make the reader think. The same will be true of all variation. There must be a good reason to choose a particular sentence structure or a new type of evidence.

There are no codified rules on how to vary sentence structure, nor are there lists of all the different types of phrasing you can use. The English language allows for so much flexibility that such a list would be never-ending. However, there are some aspects of writing that you should consider when looking for different sentence formats.

Clauses: The easiest way to vary sentence length and structure is with clauses. Multi-clause sentences can connect related ideas, provide additional detail, and vary the pattern of your language.

Length: Longer sentences are better suited for expressing complex thoughts. Shorter sentences, in contrast, are useful when you want to emphasize a concise point. Clauses can vary in length, too.

Interrogatives: When used sparingly, questions can catch your reader's attention. They also implicate your reader as a participant in your argument by asking them to think about how they would answer the question.

Tone: If you really want a sentence to stand out, you can change the tone of your writing. Using different tones can catch the reader's attention and liven up your work. That means you can be playful with your reader at times, sound demanding at times, and cultivate empathy when that feels appropriate. Be careful that the tone you choose is appropriate for the subject matter. 

Syntax variation cultivates interest. Start playing with structure. Try changing a sentence's language to make it sound different from the ones around it.

Syntactical Variation

Here is an example of what a paragraph with a repetitive syntax can sound like: 

"Looking Backward was popular in the late nineteenth century. Middle-class Americans liked its vision of society. The vision appealed to their consumption habits. Also, they liked the possibility of not being bothered by the poor." 

Choppy? Uninteresting? Here's the rewritten version, with attention paid to sentence variation: 

"The popularity of Looking Backward among middle-class Americans in the late nineteenth century can be traced to its vision of society. The novel presents a society that easily dispels the nuisance of poverty and working-class strife while maintaining the pleasure of middle-class consumptive habits."  

What's different here? The rewrite simply combines the first two and the last two sentences and adds a bit of variation in vocabulary, but the difference is powerful. Of course, if all the sentences were compound like these, the paper would begin to sound either pretentious or exhausting. If this were your paper, you might want to make the next sentence a short one and get to your thesis statement soon.

Varying Vocabulary

One way to avoid appearing overly repetitive is to consult a thesaurus and use synonyms. However, when using synonyms, you should make sure that the word you choose means exactly what you think it means. ("Penultimate," for example, does not mean "the highest," and there’s a difference between "elicit" and "illicit.") Check the connotations of synonyms by looking up their definitions.  

Varying Transitions, Signal Words, Pointing Words, and Pronouns

Writers who are familiar with their own habits will sometimes research a word or phrase they typically overuse (“however,” “that said,” “moreover”) and replace some of those words with another transition, or they might rework a sentence to avoid using any transition words in that spot if they feel they’re overdoing it.  Nouns, too, often get overused when pronouns would sound more natural. Don’t worry about this too much in the writing phase. You just want to get your thoughts on the page. But as you revise, keep an eye out for repetition and switch things up a bit to keep your paper interesting.  

Introducing variation benefits not only your reader but also you, the writer. Conceiving of different ways to communicate essential elements of your argument will allow you to revisit what makes these elements essential and to consider the central argument you are making. Each variation is a chance to introduce nuance into your writing while driving your point home. However, variation should never be your main goal—don't sacrifice audience comprehension to achieve stylistic virtuosity. You'll just sound silly. The argument is the point.

Engaging your reader in different ways

Vary the types of sentences you use to keep your paper interesting.

Attributions

Varying Your Sentence Structure and Vocabulary

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Avoiding Repetitiveness." https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-3-boundless-presentation-620/connecting-your-ideas-635/avoiding-repetitiveness-639-59/. Boundless CC BY-SA 4.0.

"clause." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/clause. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"rhetorical question." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rhetorical_question. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"tone." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tone. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"The Cain Project in Engineering and Professional Communication, Seven Ways to Motivate the Audience. September 17, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m16190/latest/. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.

Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/27574/27574-h/27574-h.htm. Public domain.

8: Rhetorical Modes

8.1: Introduction to Rhetorical Modes

8.1.1: Introduction to Rhetorical Modes

The judicious use of rhetorical modes in oral and written communication can strategically strengthen the message being delivered.

Learning Objective

Explain the meaning of "rhetoric" as it relates to written communication strategies.

Key Points

The term "rhetoric" refers to the art and study of the effective use of language to communicate a message.

Writers and speakers employ specific techniques in order to effectively persuade or affect an audience.

Rhetorical devices are applicable to both expository and creative writing.

When the technique overpowers the message, the term "rhetoric" can become derogatory.

Key Terms

creative

Creative writing is the imaginative use of words to convey meaning, whether through narrative, poetry, or imagery, with the intent to elicit an emotional response (rather than to inform).

expository

Writing is termed "expository" when it is intended to inform and instruct; presenting reasons, explanations, or step in a process. Expository writing should contain a main idea, supporting details, and a conclusion.

rhetorical modes

Conventions of writing and speaking used strategically to present a subject in a particular manner to an audience

narrative

Narrative writing is the telling of a story; reporting connected events, whether real or imagined.

rhetoric

The strategic art of informing or persuading an audience with the written or spoken word; the study of the design, organization, and techniques associated with effective written and oral communication

The Power of Rhetoric

We've all had the dual experiences of sitting spellbound, listening to a master storyteller weave a tale that leaves us breathless, and of enduring a speech that seemed too long from the first sentence. When we write, we naturally hope to emulate the former, rather than the latter. We want our words to spark the reader's imagination and deeply engage them in our topic of choice. No one wants to be a bore.

The art of rhetoric began in ancient civilizations around the world as both an art and a tool. Captivating audiences is both politically expedient and socially desirable, and from antiquity to present day, those who hold the people in the palm of their hand also hold the power.

In examining rhetorical modes, we'll be tapping the same collective wisdom used by Aristotle, Confucious, Demosthenes, Abraham Lincoln, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Winston Churchill, Charles de Gaulle, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Nelson Mandela, and yes, even Adolf Hitler, to bring an audience to its feet. Whether your intention is to write a stirring speech or compose a moving piece of prose, familiarizing yourself with these techniques will give you the tools you need to move and inspire. 

But please, before we begin, promise that you'll use your newfound power for good.

Two Types of Writing

There are two writing environments in which you'll use rhetoric: expository writing and creative (or narrative) writing. The difference lies in the purpose of the piece. An expository essay aims to inform and instruct, while a narrative essay is a story meant to entertain. 

Differences in form arise from these differences in purpose. Guidelines for expository writing emphasize clarity and brevity in order to make an emphatic point. Narratives, on the other hand, can wander or get to the point, depending on the type of story being told and the intention of the storyteller.  

A reliance on fact necessitates evidence to back up assertions, whereas a reliance on story requires faithfulness to the spirit of the event or memory being relayed. Both types of writing can be riveting, but they require different approaches and tools.

Rhetorical Modes

Here is a list of common rhetorical modes along with brief definitions. As you read through them, see if you can imagine an example of each. Which do you think might likely show up in an expository essay, and which would seem natural for creative writing?

Argumentation and Persuasion - making a case for your opinion or the perspective you wish your audience to take by offering supporting ideas or facts

Classification - breaking a subject into its separate parts and grouping these based on common traits

Cause and Effect - connecting events by showing how a given stimulus created a particular response

Comparison and Contrast - illustrating the ways in which the subject of choice is like or different from something else

Definition - a precise explanation of a term given in enough detail that one who is not at all familiar with it will understand it

Description - capturing in words a concept, character, setting, idea, person, or object so that the reader or listener can visualize the subject

Illustration and Exemplification - offering the reader/listener examples in order to clarify a concept or idea, "showing" what is meant through instances of use

Narration - sequencing events in order of time, often using sensory elements to help the reader or listener identify with the story

Process Analysis - breaking an event or action into smaller parts and explaining its steps from beginning to end, often offering reasons for each step

The Judicious Use of Rhetoric

The one caution with using rhetorical devices in written or spoken communication is that too much "technique" makes a speech, an essay, or a story tedious, at best, and manipulative, at worst. 

You'll need to study the techniques enough to use them skillfully, so as not to sound inauthentic. Sincerity always makes for the best writing, so while the techniques you'll learn about here are invaluable when used wisely, they become distasteful when overused. 

Attributions

Introduction to Rhetorical Modes

8.2: Types of Rhetorical Modes

8.2.1: Argumentation and Persuasion

Argumentation and persuasion are rhetorical modes used to convince others of an opinion, belief, or the merits of a course of action.

Learning Objective

Determine the purpose and structure of argumentation and persuasion.

Key Points

Argumentation and persuasion are both used to convince others of an opinion, belief, or the merits of a course of action.

Argumentation uses logic and objective support to convince the audience of the veracity of an argument.

Persuasion appeals to the emotions of the audience to convince them of the inherent value of a stance.

There are appropriate settings in which to use both argumentation and persuasion.

The decision to use either argumentation or persuasion (or both) will guide the writer as to the writing process and the selection of primary literary tools.

There is a generally accepted structure for a persuasive/argumentative essay that allows within it the opportunity for creative expression.

Key Terms

pathos

A method of persuading others by creating an emotional response in them.

ethos

A method of convincing the reader/listener through the credibility of the writer/speaker.

logos

A method of convincing people through logic and reason.

Why, Oh Why?

When we decide to put an opinion out there, we're doing it for a reason. Usually, the reason is that we want people to agree with our perspective and even take up the cause themselves. This is where you give your audience the why: why your point makes sense, why your suggested course of action is the best, why other ideas are not as sound, and why your thesis should be tattooed over their heart. Well, okay, maybe that's going a little far.

Tattoos aren't a bad example, though. Someone or something had to be pretty inspiring or convincing to get them to emblazon a symbol permanently on their body.

How can you be that convincing? There are two major strategies for answering the "why" of your thesis: arguing through logic and convincing through emotion.

Argumentation

We can think of a constructed "argument" not so much as an adversarial endeavor, but a search for the truth of a matter. Just as Supreme Court justices are charged with listening to all evidence before coming to a conclusion that will best serve the Republic, you may assume that your reader is seeking the most reasonable perspective to take, based on all the facts.

Your job, then, as the writer of an argument, is to present the reader with the arguments and evidence supporting both (or all) perspectives and reason out why your thesis is the most logical conclusion. The tone of such writing is dispassionate and objective; reason is king.

A common mistake about writing argumentation is presenting only the arguments that support the opinion you want your audience to adopt. That approach is less effective, because the reader's mind naturally jumps to logical objections and counter-arguments, and if those doubts are not addressed, the reader remains suspicious and therefore unconvinced. When you contend with all the potential objections, however, the reader's mind is satisfied and he or she can rest comfortably in your conclusion.

Another common error in argumentation is presenting a weakened argument for opposing opinions, in hopes that a cursory glance at and dismissal of the counter-arguments will satisfy the readers' doubts. Most readers will see through this strategy, though, and lose respect for both the writer and the argument as a result. You want your thesis to be strong enough to stand up to strict critical scrutiny and demonstrate that strength in your argument.

For these reasons, argumentation is a rigorous endeavor. You usually won't even begin to formulate a thesis for such a paper until you've done extensive research, because you'll want to be well-educated on the topic before coming to any conclusions yourself. The good news is that your process in deciding what you believe is fodder for informing your audience: once you've done the discovery, you can lead your readers on the path you yourself followed to the conclusion that feels natural to you. If your own search was thorough enough, and if you express it clearly, your audience will be more likely to agree with you, or at least to respect your opinion.

Consider an argument, then, a sincere effort to find the "truth," or at least the best option for the situation in question.

Tools for Argumentation

The most effective tool in argumentation is solid support for each aspect of the argument. You will create an ethos of credibility to the extent your reader finds you trustworthy. To this end, you will need to consider both the effectiveness of the source for making your point (whether it is a quote, facts, or data), as well as the reader's perception of the source of that information.

Reliable research has certain markers that make it credible. In a quantitative study, for example, sample size is important to ensure the data is truly representative. Data saturation is a key in qualitative research. An example of unreliable research would be the claim, "Voted best fish taco in the world three years in a row!" Who voted?  The kitchen staff?  Though you don't have to be a researcher yourself to make quality arguments, you need to learn where to look to find studies that are, in fact, reliable.  Which brings us to the next point.

You'll also need to assess the perceived reliability of the source. Studies funded by cigarette companies on the effects of cigarette smoke are less likely to find deleterious effects than studies commissioned by the National Institutes of Health, or at least we might logically assume that. You'll want to avoid any appearance of bias, along with any actual bias. If your reader perceives your sources as objective and reliable, he or she will trust you and be willing to follow your argument to its conclusion.

Persuasion

If you're less "Dr. Spock" and more "Captain Kirk," though, you might be more inclined toward persuading your audience to believe as you do. We've all had friends who can talk us into almost anything. How do they do that? They get us in trouble by effectively prodding our emotions.

Your intentions, of course, will be noble, but the technique works either way. 

Persuasive writing is about convincing the reader that your opinion is the one he or she should adopt. The focus is on the opinion itself, rather than any counter-arguments, and the reader is led (or lured) step by step to feel increasingly more comfortable with the thesis. The tone can be more aggressive and passionate than in argumentation, because the writer is appealing to the reader's emotions, rather than to the logical mind.

You're in a plane for the purpose of skydiving with your daredevil buddy, but you've never done it before and you are hesitant to jump. Your friend doesn't discuss the possibility of your leg breaking or the chute not opening. No, instead your friend talks of the thrill you'll feel as you soar through the air, the confidence it will give you to have done something so daring, and the bragging rights you'll have once you're on the ground. There might be a statistic or two thrown in about how few people get hurt skydiving, and there may even be a warning about what you'll feel like if you don't jump, but mostly your friend is there to inspire.

Naturally, you jump.

How does one translate such prodding into writing? It's all about conviction and anticipation. Your friend intuited your objections, but rather than mentioning them, simply countered with an affirmation of the thesis (jumping out of airplanes is great). The benefits of believing this way are going to make all counterarguments obsolete, so rather than entertain those, we'll just keep stepping up the emotional pressure to embrace the thesis.

Tools for Persuasion

The most effective tools in persuasive writing are examples and sensory images. 

Examples (illustrative stories) help your reader identify with someone experiencing the plight you describe. Identification with another being is a powerful pull on the emotions. "The homeless man, finding the shelter closed once again due to overcrowding, casts his eyes to the bustling sidewalk, hoping someone, anyone, will catch his eye and offer help, even if it's only the feeling of connection to another human being."

Sensory images, unlike logic, appeal to our emotional center. Reading or hearing how something looks, tastes, smells, sounds, or feels can create a visceral response in us. "He sighs and shuffles off to the tattered old refrigerator box that provides little insulation from the icy ground and reeks of the garbage piled inches from his face."

Choose Your Method

You may have come to the conclusion that an argumentative essay is a more sophisticated way of getting someone to see a particular perspective. It's true that the argument is usually considered the more formal writing style, but there are cases in which pathos may be more appropriate than logos. How do you know which to choose?

Audience - Know to whom your words will be directed. Are your readers more likely to be swayed by peer-reviewed research or emotional appeals?

Occasion - There's something to be said for gauging the right time for facts and the appropriate time for conviction. Are you writing a State of the Union address, where you're hoping the audience will leap to its feet with applause every few paragraphs, or are you explaining to your board of directors why your company should go public in six months?

Purpose - Similarly, you'll want to keep the end-game in mind. Asking your readers to take an immediate action might require a different approach than asking them to permanently alter their belief system.

Here is an example of the use of a persuasive piece of writing. Do you think it would have been more effective as a logical argument?

The Black Panther Party's 1966 Ten Point Program outlined demands and beliefs that the organization believed would begin to repair some of the damage of slavery and racism in the United States. Here is #5 from the "What We Want Now!" section (note that even the exclamation point hints at the persuasive nature of the argument):

"We want education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society. We want education that teaches us our true history and our role in the present day society."

Over a decade earlier, Thurgood Marshall had presented a petition along the same lines to the Supreme Court, only he chose to use argumention:

Although he raised a variety of legal issues on appeal, the most common one was that separate school systems for blacks and whites were inherently unequal, and thus violate the "equal protection clause" of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Furthermore, relying on sociological tests, such as the one performed by social scientist Kenneth Clark, and other data, he also argued that segregated school systems had a tendency to make black children feel inferior to white children, and thus such a system should not be legally permissible.

Though both pleas relate to offering a stronger system of education for people of color, the context for each assertion was different. One had as an audience the general public; the other, at least initially, spoke to court justices. The occasion of arguing before the Supreme Court required Marshall to make a formal and objective case, whereas the Black Panthers were seeking a dramatic shift in the public perception of the status quo.  Marshall's purpose was to build an argument that would stand up to scrutiny for decades or even centuries to come, in any instance of societal segregation, and while the Black Panthers would likely have agreed with that goal, their immediate purpose was to lift the veil of white privilege.

You might notice, though, that there are elements of persuasive language in Marshall's argument: he speaks of  "a tendency to make black children feel inferior," which hints at pathos. The reason we wouldn't categorize it as such, though, is because he is citing sociological data: he is presenting this tendency as a fact, not trying to manipulate the court's emotions.

Similarly, the organization of the Black Panthers' Ten Point Program might seem akin to a logical argument, but the content of "What We Want Now!" is grounded in ideas of right and wrong, rather than objective data.

So, impassioned plea or reasoned argument, let's look at the steps to creation. 

Steps to Creating an Argument 

Consider your topic. What are some questions that come up for you about this topic? What do you expect to find as you research it? How might people disagree about the topic?

Research the topic. Find out what's being said about the topic on both or all sides of the issue. Look at the primary writers or speakers championing each perspective and allow yourself time to marinate in each of their ideas.

Choose the perspective you agree with. Having read material representing each general idea about the topic, you will likely find yourself agreeing with one or another. Formulate a preliminary thesis statement based on your conclusions.

Go back to the literature to support your thesis statement, but be open to changing it if more information comes to light. 

Identify each counterargument, finding the most cogent resources for each, and make your best argument against these using the most applicable and reliable sources to support your perspective.

Organize your paper in a way that will most effectively anticipate the reader's mental journey through the topic.

Steps to Persuasion

Search your feelings for a response to the topic. What kind of emotions come up around it? What is your initial gut reaction to a statement for and a statement against the topic?

Decide what you want to convince others about concerning this issue. What feels meaningful to you concerning this topic? Create a thesis statement that reflects this desire.

Outline an argument based on what you believe and feel, then dive into the literature to find out what others have had to say on the topic. You'll want to look at objections to your opinion as well as supporting evidence in order to anticipate your reader's thought process, even if you won't be including all of these references in your paper.

Find or create stories and sensory imagery that will speak to the reader's emotions.

Organize your paper in a way that puts increasing pressure on the reader's emotions. Often, this means beginning with imagery that orients the reader to the situation and then intensifying the pathos as you go. Keep counterarguments in mind as well, as you attend to organization.

If you are combining the approaches, you'll want to create your paper based on the steps to creating an argument and then incorporate sensory imagery, stories, and impassioned pleas into the structure as appropriate -- often in the introduction and conclusion.

Structure of the Argumentative and Persuasive Essay

While you can use argumentation and persuasion in any type of writing, a common venue is the essay, in which you're asked to argue for or against a position.

While there are no hard and fast rules to structuring your essay, there are some generally accepted conventions that will give you a head start in creating your argument and allow you to focus on content.

Introduction

Think of the introduction as an inverted triangle; a funnel. You want to begin with a broad introduction to the realm of thought and end with a very specific thesis that the rest of the paper will prove. The purpose here is to capture the reader's interest and quickly move him or her to an understanding of your point of focus.

Introductory sentence. This is where you can spark your audience's interest in the topic. You can use pathos here or make a bold statement of fact, either of which can serve as a "hook" to capture the reader's attention. 

Linking sentence. Here, you narrow in on your topic more specifically. Again, you may choose to accomplish this through imagery, a statement of fact, or by simple explanation. By the end of this sentence (which could actually be as many sentences as you need to accomplish the task), your audience should know the problem you wish to address and why it's important.

Argument #1. Here, you'll preview the first argument in favor of your thesis, which you'll expound on in the first body paragraph. You haven't stated your thesis yet; these three sentences will lead your reader to it naturally. So think of these three (or more) sentences as priming the pump for the rush of clarity that is your thesis statement.

Argument #2. Again, this sentence is merely a statement of what you'll expound on in the body of the paper: this time, in the second body paragraph. 

Argument #3. Here, you're simply stating the argument for the third body paragraph.

Thesis statement. The thesis statement should flow naturally out of the arguments (hence, the funnel analogy). It should be clear, concise, and one-sided.

Body Paragraphs

Each of the paragraphs in the body of your paper will serve the thesis statement. Each of these paragraphs will have its own point to prove related to the thesis. A well-structured argument will grow stronger with each paragraph, whether the technique is argumentation or persuasion.

Each body paragraph (and three to five paragraphs for a body are the standard guideline) should contain

A topic sentence. Also called a "sub-thesis," the topic sentence is a main point that supports your thesis statement. You can refer to the thesis statement in this sentence to remind your audience how this main point relates to it. 

Evidentiary sentences. Here is where you offer evidence and explanations to support the veracity of the topic sentence. Rather than a simple listing of supporting evidence, though, you'll want to form a coherent paragraph linking each item thoughtfully. Phrases like, "not only," "therefore," "in addition to," and "moreover" are commonly found linking pieces of evidence in a body paragraph.

Concluding sentence. Here, you will link the first topic sentence -- the one you just gave evidence for -- to the second topic sentence which you are about to introduce. Think of this sentence as a vital link of a chain. Without it, your audience will not be able to follow your line of thought. How does the point you just proved relate to the one you're about to prove?

Counterarguments

In an argumentative essay, you can include counterargument paragraphs either directly after the main point they attempt to contradict (thereby getting the objection out of the reader's mind right away), or you can entertain counterarguments in a series of body paragraphs after your main points supporting the thesis. The structure mimics the body paragraphs but instead of offering evidence for the topic sentence, you are offering evidence disproving the counterargument. 

Persuasive essays generally do not entertain counterarguments.

Conclusion

Just as the introduction began broadly and ended with the specific point of the thesis, your conclusion will begin with the thesis and broaden. Ideally, it will also link back to the imagery or facts that began the introduction. Such linking works with the reader's memory to create a satisfying feeling of completion.

Restatement of the thesis. In this first concluding sentence, you remind the reader of the thesis statement you have now given evidence for. Common lead-ins for this sentence are phrases like, "It is clear now that...," "We have seen how..." and "Given the preponderance of evidence..."

Summary of the main points. Here, you'll restate the main points of your argument. You can present them in a different way here than in the body of the paper, perhaps by combining them or incorporating them into a story or image. 

Broadening statement. This is where you can link back to the first sentence of the introductory paragraph. Has the sad image you led with found a happy ending with your thesis in place? Might the disturbing facts turn around based on following your main points?

Keep in mind that while you don't want to sound like you're following a script or a formula and simply plugging in your topic, using a structure can allow your creativity to shine by allowing you to focus on content.

Have fun with your argument! Play with the ideas until you feel a spark ignite. Come at it from various angles and surprise your reader with new perspectives. Arguing your position can be both effective and enjoyable— both for you and your audience.

8.2.2: Classification

Classification is a method of creating better understanding of a subject by identifying the categories to which it belongs. 

Learning Objective

Determine the purpose and structure of classification.

Key Points

The purpose of classifying is to reveal in a subject what might remain obscured if left uncategorized, in order to know the subject more completely.

The classification system selected indicates the meaning the writer wants to reveal about the subject.

Initial brainstorming and subsequent research are important steps in selecting a system of classification for a subject.

The introduction to a classification essay includes an extended definition of the subject, identifies the classification system and categories, and explains why this exercise of classifying will enhance the reader's understanding of the subject.

Key Terms

mind map

An artistic representation of thought patterns, created during brainstorming around a specific topic. The representation usually includes lines linking circled concepts, with subcategory link lines emerging from larger category circles.

classifying

Arranging things, ideas, or people into groups based on certain characteristics.

classification

The process of classifying something according to shared qualities or characteristics.

Why Classify?

We spend most of our time trying not to fall into the trap of stereotyping and "pigeon-holing," so as not to limit the potential of a person or thing. After all, aren't we supposed to be looking for our similarities, rather than our differences?

Well, yes, of course, and yet there are times when identifying what categories a person, a group, a phenomenon, or a thing might fall into can create a better understanding of it -- and even of the whole.

Our purpose in classifying is to reveal what might otherwise remain obscured, which can help us know something more completely.

Take love, for example. We can take it as a whole concept and revel in its consistency; its sameness; its consistent effects. There's nothing wrong with that. And yet, if we want to really understand love, we begin to suss out its nuances and intuit various types of love. We see that romantic love is one thing, but the love between a parent and child has some different qualities. And the love of a divine being seems to differ from the human love we generally experience. Even love between a dog and its master has unique qualities. Oh, and then there's teacher-student love and the kind of love you feel for the world when everything is going well, and what about the love of self? 

Examining anything can take you down a similar path. You could categorize people by common behavioral traits; horses by physical attributes; chairs by style; wind by speeds; trees by leaf shape.

Of course, you could also categorize people by belief systems; horses by temperament; chairs by comfort level; wind by direction; and trees by root structure. And herein lies the key to classification: choice of system.

Choice of Classification System

Remember, your purpose in classifying is to illuminate the parts to better understand the whole. You can think of selecting a system of classification, then, as choosing your magnifying perspective. What kinds of things do you want to reveal? And why?

Let's get back to love for a moment. What purposes might it serve to classify love by type? Well, as a reader I will likely want to see if I can find each kind of love in my own life experience. That might be helpful to see where there might be gaps. If I don't have a child, and I feel a sense of longing when I read about "storge," and the empathy bond, I might identify a need I didn't realize I had. Or if, when I read about "eros," I roll my eyes, I might discover how cynical I have become because of my last failed relationship. C.S. Lewis's categorizations of love, then, might assist the reader in discerning the types of love one can identify in one's own life and the types that may be missing. Psychological or spiritual growth are possible results from this illumination.

Another way to categorize love might be the various ways people tend to feel loved. Some people tend to feel loved when they received gifts, others when their partner gives them words of affirmation. Physical touch, acts of service, and quality time are other indicators for people that they're loved. Finding out which of these ways speak most to you can help you ask for what you need, and quizzing your partner about the categories can be revelatory, assisting you in knowing how best to communicate love to him or her. Gary Chapman's work categorizing expressions of love, then, can affect the quality of relationships.

You can see that choosing by Lewis' categorizations system or Chapman's, you will be laying bare different aspects of the phenomenon of love. And so much of the work that goes into a categorization essay, or any categorization effort, will be in the identification of the system.

Steps to Choosing a Classification System (Pre-writing)

Since it's such an important part of classification, let's take a look at how one might begin to select a classification system.

Small Furry Mammals

Brainstorming the various classification systems your subject could be categorized under can help reveal which you might find the most meaningful and elucidating.

Small Furry Mammals Classification Brainstorm

Brainstorm. One way is to begin with your own brain. Having chosen a topic (lets go with furry mammals this time), simply start brainstorming on your own or with friends about how the topic  could be broken down. You might choose to create a mind map for this process, as it will then be easy to see, when you're finished, where most of your thoughts centered.

Do some research. Choose the brainstormed category that most interests you and do an initial search to see what other divisions exist in that category. For example, if you want to write about the grouping types of small furry mammals, you'll want to find out what scientists call this, and the names they use for each category. If you're still interested in this categorization system, you can move on to the next step, and if you're not, your research can lead you in a new direction.

Select the three (or so) most applicable categories to use for your topic. Three categories is a general guideline, so you may need to group categories together if there are more, e.g. mammals who live in family groups would include both mammals who mate for life and those that live together when the offspring are growing. You can talk about the distinctions in the paragraph for that category, if necessary.

Check your categories to be sure they do indeed exist in the same categorization system and are distinct from one another. For example, if you are categorizing woodland creatures by habitat, you'll be choosing what "habitat" means.  There can be tree-dwelling mammals who live in the rainforest and tree-dwelling mammals who live in the dessert, and still more in woodland areas; so you wouldn't want "tree-dwelling" and "rainforest" to be presented as two different categories in the same system. 

Place your subject into the categories you've selected and see how they fall. Do these categories shed light on the subject as a whole? How? Why is it interesting and important to look at the subject through the lens of this categorization system? Once you answer those questions, you're ready to write your paper.

Structure of the Classification Essay

Introduction

You'll generally begin your essay with an extended definition of the topic and a description of the classification system you'll use. This will lead to your thesis statement, which will:

identify what you will be classifying (a brief reminder of the topic you've defined),

explain the classification system you will use, 

list the categories you've selected, and 

explain why this classification system is important to the reader's understanding of the topic.

Body Paragraphs

Each body paragraph will be centered around one of the categories from the classification system. You'll want to choose an order for the body paragraphs that makes the most sense to you. You may choose to present the categories in order of impact, or from most important to least important, or from least surprising to most surprising. If you were the reader, which order would be the most convincing?

Body paragraphs include

an explanation of the category

how the topic fits into the category, and 

what makes this categorization meaningful 

Conclusion

In the final paragraph, you'll want to bring the parts you've just created back into their status as a whole. Here is where you lay out the meaning you've shed on the topic by putting it into categories. What more do we now know about small, furry mammals now that we've seen the variety of their habitats? Might it say something about evolution? About their adaptability? About their usefulness as research subjects? You'll want to consider the interests of your audience here.

As with most essays, your conclusion will be like an inverted funnel:

starting with a restatement of the thesis, 

broadening to discuss the meaning of the findings, then 

making a more general statement that relates back to the introduction's opening.

Classification essays can be quite useful in clarifying concepts and revealing a subject's deeper meaning if the paper is well-constructed. The keys are selecting a classification system and categories that are coherent and clearly revealing the relevance of each category to the whole.

8.2.3: Cause and Effect

The rhetorical mode "cause and effect" is used to link an event with its consequences.

Learning Objective

Determine the purpose and structure of cause and effect.

Key Points

The rhetorical mode "cause and effect" is used to link an action, event, or decision, with its consequences.

In linking causes with effects, it is important to examine root causes and to avoid labeling coincidental occurrences as causes.

The organization approach to cause and effect essays will describe the subject of the essay and examine either its causes or its effects.

The result of reading an effective cause and effect essay will be to see links between previously unlinked events and to find links between the subject of the essay and broader phenomena.

Key Term

cause and effect

A relationship between events where one creates or initiates the other.

Just Because

The rhetorical mode "cause and effect" is used to link an action, event, or decision, with its consequences. It answers the question, "Why X?" with "X because Y."

We use cause and effect thinking all the time; it's the way our brains function. We look for patterns and linkages everywhere.

My stomach is upset. I bet it was the fish I had for lunch. I had a funny feeling about it, but I just added more lemon juice and ate it anyway. That'll teach me not to listen to my intuition!

We talk to one another about causes and effects all the time, too:

Nikki's middle fingers on her right hand are deformed because they were broken when she was eleven year old and her sister slammed the piano top down. That's why she looked at you funny when you said it must be nice to have siblings.

Sometimes (some would say far too often), we even link effects to the wrong cause:

I have to wear my red blazer to the game this afternoon! I've worn it to the last three games, and they won every time. The time before that, it was too hot and I didn't wear the blazer, and they lost by three points. I shouldn't have let them down like that. Never again!

Purpose of Cause and Effect Exposition

You can use cause and effect as the basis of an essay or as a clarification tool in any writing. Mystery novels are often based on figuring out the cause of a particular undesirable effect.

Why make links between causes and effects in your writing?

to clearly identify linkages between an event and its consequence 

to establish a precedent that will inform future decision-makers

to better understand the nuances of a phenomenon's evolution

Common Pitfalls in Linking Cause and Effect 

Whatever your purpose, you will want to avoid the following:

Mistaking coincidence for cause and effect. Just because two items happened at the same time or place, or because one followed the other, doesn't mean that one event caused the other. Remember the red blazer example, above.

Misattribution of cause. In a similar vein, sometimes we can make attribute an effect to a cause that is related to the actual cause but may not be the cause (or isn't the whole story). For example, you may assert that cash depletion in your bank account is due to the high cost of gas, but the reason you have spent so much on gas is because you've taken several extra trips since buying the car. You could argue for either reason, but if there is a related cause like this that you choose not to address, your argument will be insincere and weak.

Organization of the Cause and Effect Essay

You have an initial choice to make in your cause and effect essay: which is your focus? You might choose to focus on one effect (e.g., Hitler's rise to power in the 1940s) and explore its possible causes:

Effect

You may wish to examine the multiple reasons a phenomenon occurred.

Examining the causes of a phenomenon.

Another option is to explore the multiple effects of one event, action, or decision.

Cause

You may wish to examine the various effects of a particular phenomenon.

The effects of a particular event.

For clarification purposes, we will identify the subject as the phenomenon in the circle on the left side of the graphic, either the one cause or the one effect. 

Introduction

Begin with a sensory image having to do with the subject of your essay (which could be either cause or effect). Here is an example from an essay that will go on to link "The Troubles" in Northern Ireland, which ended with the murder of Robert McCartney, to a series of decisions to militarize efforts at Irish reunification:

Bridgeen Hagans stood bleary-eyed at the door, trying to understand what the Belfast policeman was explaining: Her fiance, Robert McCartney, had been slit from chest to stomach by members of the Professional Irish Republican Army. There would be no wedding.

Link the image to the effect(s) that will be examined.

Over 3600 people died in the 30-year span of The Troubles in Northern Ireland. 

Link the effect to the event(s), decision(s), or action(s) your paper will discuss. 

Though the conflict is officially dated from 1968-1998, several decisions both before and after these dates comprise the reasons behind the deaths: decisions to militarize political action groups

Expound on the specific event(s), decision(s), or action(s) your paper will focus on:

We will look specifically at the origins of the conflict dating all the way back to 1609, with the Scottish and English settlement of Ireland, the Civil Authorities Act of 1922, and the civil rights march in Derry in 1968. We will also examine the post-Good Friday Agreement violence resulting from militarization.

Transition to your thesis statement by exposing the purpose of examining these linkages.

In the interest of lasting peace in Ireland and around the world, it is imperative to understand the roots of its undoing. By identifying the causes of The Troubles, we can begin to pinpoint the precursors of mortal conflict between cultures.

Body Paragraphs

Your first body paragraph will describe your subject (the cause, or the effect, depending on your organization). Your reader will need to fully understand what it is you are attempting to explain or identify:

Most climate scientists agree the main cause of the current global warming trend is human expansion of the "greenhouse effect"— warming that results when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth toward space. Certain gases in the atmosphere block heat from escaping. Long-lived gases that remain semi-permanently in the atmosphere and do not respond physically or chemically to changes in temperature are described as "forcing" climate change. Gases, such as water vapor, which respond physically or chemically to changes in temperature are seen as 'feedbacks.'

Subsequent body paragraphs, except for the final body paragraph, will each be dedicated to the causes or effects you will be examining (the causes of the phenomenon you have just described or the effects of the event/decision/action you have just described).

Body paragraphs can be organized by the impact you anticipate they will have on the reader (often from less dramatic to most), or in chronological order. Choose the order that will make the most sense, both logically and emotionally, to the reader.

Water vapor. The most abundant greenhouse gas, but importantly, it acts as a feedback to the climate. Water vapor increases as the Earth's atmosphere warms, but so does the possibility of clouds and precipitation, making these some of the most important feedback mechanisms to the greenhouse effect.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂). A minor but very important component of the atmosphere, carbon dioxide is released through natural processes such as respiration and volcano eruptions and through human activities such as deforestation, land use changes, and burning fossil fuels. Humans have increased atmospheric CO₂ concentration by more than a third since the Industrial Revolution began. This is the most important long-lived "forcing" of climate change.

Methane. A hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and human activities, including the decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and especially rice cultivation, as well as ruminant digestion and manure management associated with domestic livestock. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, methane is a far more active greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but also one which is much less abundant in the atmosphere.

Nitrous oxide. A powerful greenhouse gas produced by soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Synthetic compounds entirely of industrial origin used in a number of applications, but now largely regulated in production and release to the atmosphere by international agreement for their ability to contribute to destruction of the ozone layer. They are also greenhouse gases.

The final body paragraph will describe the significance of the relationship between the subject and the causes/effects just discussed.

On Earth, human activities are changing the natural greenhouse. Over the last century the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil has increased the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂). This happens because the coal or oil burning process combines carbon with oxygen in the air to make CO₂. To a lesser extent, the clearing of land for agriculture, industry, and other human activities has increased concentrations of greenhouse gases.

Conclusion

Your conclusion will offer:

a brief summary of your points linking cause(s) and effect(s)

an indication of why these linkages are important, and to whom, and

a link back to the introductory paragraph's imagery, if appropriate.

The following example is the conclusion to a 2015 article by Francisca Carvajal and Jose Manuel Lerma-Cabrera: Alcohol Consumption Among Adolescents — Implications for Public Health.

At 1.8 billion, adolescents and young adults represent more than a quarter of the world's population. Many health-related behaviors usually starting in adolescence (i.e. alcohol use) contribute to disease in adulthood. Several studies have indicated that a considerable amount of adolescents drink alcohol, and this number is continually growing. Nevertheless, the increase in alcohol use and abuse among adolescents has been coupled with increasing social, health and economic consequences. Adolescents who drink alcohol may experience a range of adverse short-and long-term consequences, including physical and mental health problems, violent and aggressive behavior, and adjustment problems in school and at home. Clearly, underage drinking and its consequences present a significant public health problem that must command our attention.

8.2.4: Comparison and Contrast

Efforts at comparison-contrast look at the commonalities of and differences between subjects in context in order to discern deeper meanings than might otherwise be possible.

Learning Objective

Determine the purpose and structure of comparison and contrast.

Key Points

The comparison-contrast method is used to expose the similarities and differences between two (or sometimes more) ideas.

The point of comparison-contrast is to find a deeper understanding of both subjects and their context than you would in looking at the subjects alone.

You can compare and contrast two subjects on even terms, or you can use one subject as a lens through which to view the other.

The context for the comparison/contrast is as important to examine and explain as the subjects.

Prewriting exercises using Venn diagrams or charts can be especially useful for this type of essay.

Research on the context and both subjects of the essay will deepen your thought process and better ground your discussion.

Body paragraphs in the comparison/contrast essay can be organized in a variety of ways, depending largely on the conclusions you want your reader to make.

Both the introductory and concluding paragraphs of the comparison/contrast essay need to include explanations of and links between the context and subjects of study.

Key Term

comparison-contrast

A method of investigating a topic by comparing two or more subjects to discern their similarities and differences in a particular contextual frame.

This and That

The comparison-contrast rhetorical method is used to expose the similarities and differences between two or more ideas, resulting in a deeper understanding of both ideas and their relationship. Notice that we're talking about ideas here, rather than "things," or "texts." That's because the underlying theme, even when comparing two texts or two things, is always about the ideas they represent.

Comparing and contrasting are common activities our minds play with all the time. Like objects in space, we are drawn to one another almost gravitationally and want to know how we are all alike and different.

Knowing (or at least thinking about) how our behavior, our attitudes, our ideas, and our dreams match up to other people's helps us make decisions. We may decide to try new things based on cultural patterns, or we might choose to buck the trends in favor of inner directives. Either way, though, this constant, subtle wondering about how we match up to others keeps our brains busy: for better or worse.

When we use this capacity for comparison in the realm of ideas, our intellect sparks to life. Diversity of opinion and thought is what perpetuates intellectual evolution. Exposure to two ideas that may be radically or only subtly different is exciting to the mind. We want to discern exactly how these ideas differ, what they have in common, and which might be the better option to choose in a given context.

You have an aunt who's gone prematurely gray and wears her long locks proudly. Her mother (your grandmother), however, continuously dies her hair various shades of purple — violet one week, indigo the next — and relishes the wide-eyed wonder she sees in her grandchildren's eyes. "You're whatever age you want to be!" she laughs, while her daughter, your aunt, rolls her eyes and retorts, "You need to accept your body and yourself for who you are now."

There's nothing inherently wrong with either idea, right? But your mind will want to choose. That's its nature. The exercise of comparing and contrasting makes this process conscious, turning "judging" into "discernment." In the end, you might decide that both grandmother and aunt have hit upon important wisdom that, though different on the surface, both speak deeply to the idea of freedom. 

Comparison-contrast essays distinguish themselves by their discernment capability. When looking at both similarities and differences between ideas, we are examining them with more care and rigor than some other methods require. Looking at a zebra and describing it gives you one level of information, while comparing its similarities and differences to a horse gives you another level: more nuanced and specific.

How to Recognize an Invitation to Compare and Contrast

In an academic setting, you might be assigned a comparison-contrast essay outright, but you might also be asked to compare and contrast using subtler language. Here are some examples:

Discuss the role of "the stranger" as presented in D.H. Lawrence's Snake and  J. Rumi's The Guest House. (Here, you're being asked to compare two poems using a particular lens.)

 Tennessee Williams said that "We're all of us sentenced to solitary confinement inside our own skins... Personal lyricism is the outcry from prisoner to prisoner from the cell in solitary where each is confined for the duration of his life." How do the characters of Blanche Dubois, and Laura Wingfield embody both the solitary confinement metaphor and the outcry to other prisoners? (In this paper, you'll be using two characters from different plays to delve into a meaningful comment by their creator.)

How do the dual themes of socio-economic status and personal innocence compete to create the primary conflict in John Knowles's A Separate Peace? (This is a question relating to two plot threads and their effects on the climax of the story.)

Mina Loy, then in Florence, Italy, wrote to the feminist movement in 1914, "Cease to place your confidence in economic legislation, vice-crusades, and uniform education — you are glossing over Reality (sic). Professional and commercial careers are opening up for you — Is that all you want?" How might her comments be more or less applicable to the feminist movement of the 1970s and to women's issues in present day? (You're being asked to re-contextualize criticism of a particular movement in two different time periods.)

Which of the currently available typesetting machinery would be appropriate purchases for a newly incorporated, mid-sized printing company? (Even in business settings, you'll need to use effective compare-contrast methods; in this case, comparing machinery based on a variety of factors important to a new business.)

Of the brassicas, which are the most likely to thrive in low pH soils with high levels of micronutrients? (Though we're in the field of botany now, you're still being asked to compare a group of things in a particular context.)

You can see that comparison-contrast works in a variety of different environments. In a general sense, any time you're asked to evaluate two or more things in one context, you're being asked to use this strategy. 

Types of Comparison-Contrast Essays

The classic comparison-contrast essay gives equal time and equal emphasis to both of two subjects. You use this type of essay to discern similarities and differences, but also to reveal surprising revelations about their relationship.

A keyhole essay uses one subject as the frame to look at the other subject. Looking at the women's suffrage movement through the lens of the women's liberation movement would be an example. This kind of essay yields more specialized information than might otherwise be found.

How to Compare and Contrast

Prewriting

The Venn diagram is a useful tool when approaching a comparison-contrast essay. Simply create two overlapping circles and begin putting in the similarities you see in the overlapping section and the contrasting pieces in the separated sections. Do this as a brainstorm, without worrying about whether items are parallel or important enough to be analyzed. That comes later.

Comparing/Contrasting Poems

You can use a Venn diagram or a chart or table to brainstorm and record your initial ideas about how the subjects are alike and different.

The venn diagram compares "Where I'm From" by George Ella Lyon and "The Lanyard" by Billy Collins. The list of items unique to "Where I'm From" include "variety of childhood events," "poignancy," "variety of objects as imagery," and "ancestors." The list of items to unique to "The Lanyard" include "specific childhood event," "humor," "specific object as metaphor," and "mother." The shared items include "tone of gratitude," "phrase repetition," "reflecting on childhood," and "place names."

A table/chart/graph exercise similarly helps you organize your ideas and research. 

Great Divergence- 1550-1850

Laying out the similarities and differences in graph or table form can give you the visual your brain needs to formulate a coherent comparison between subjects.

The chart compares the "European Economy" and the "Asian Economy." The items unique to the "European Economy" include "increasingly higher wages for unskilled labor 1550-1850," "colonization expanded resources," and "state-enforced legal trade contracts." The items unique to the "Asian Economy" include "falling wages for unskilled labor 1550-1850," "resources dwindled in some areas (not in India, but then they were colonized," and "honor-based trade agreements not enforced by government." The common items include "coal mining," "literacy rates," "constraints on native resources," "self-rule (except for India post-East India Co.), and "trading networks."

Research

You'll naturally want to learn everything you can about the subjects you're working with—the two or more things you're comparing and contrasting. But just as important is research about the context you're comparing them in. 

For example, in discussing the role of "the stranger" in both D.H. Lawrence's Snake and J. Rumi's The Guest House, your context is the concept of "the stranger." You can research psychological and sociological views about strangers and fears; religious spiritual ideas and imagery speculating about what the presence of a stranger might indicate. You can go deeper and look up the Jungian concept of "shadow" and explore what other philosophers and psychologists have postulated. You could even find other literary references to strangers and shadows to get an idea of how the concept has been treated over time.

Structure of the Comparison-Contrast Essay

Introduction

The introduction will include exposition of

the context for the comparison,

a description of the subjects,

the rationale for choosing the subjects you've chosen, and 

the thesis statement, which needs to make the relationship between subjects clear (often beginning with the word, "while" or "whereas").

The Body Paragraphs

Body paragraphs can be organized by examining each subject one at a time:

Subject A

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Subject B

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

This way of organizing can be especially useful if you are describing topics that may be difficult to understand and need a cohesive description. Its downfall is that the compare/contrast section that follows can either get repetitious (because you'll have to repeat points you've already made) or look more like a list than a coherent discussion.

You could choose a paragraph by paragraph comparison of the subjects:

Point 1

Subject A

Subject B

Point 2

Subject A

Subject B

Point 3

Subject A

Subject B

This is a common method of organization, with the advantage of being able to present your points and your subject comparisons together. The disadvantage is that switching back and forth between subjects can get tedious or confusing for the reader if the writing is either too repetitious or unclear.

Another organization option is to first compare and then contrast. 

Point A (Similarity)

Subject A

Subject B

Point B (Similarity)

Subject A

Subject B

Point C (Difference)

Subject A

Subject B

Point D (Difference)

Subject A

Subject B

In this way, you are emphasizing the differences, since you leave them for last, so if you want the main thrust of your paper to be that the differences reveal the crux of the issue, this style of organization may be the most useful approach. One drawback, however, is that in waiting so long to find contrasts, the reader may get a little bored. 

However you organize the body of your paper, each point of your argument must be linked back to the thesis; each point must shed light on the relationship of the subjects to the context of the argument.

Conclusion

Here, you will summarize your points succinctly in a way that makes it clear how your points have proven your thesis. (E.g., "So while so-called "alternative" sources of power are, in the short term, more expensive than more conventional types of power, it is clear that increased seed money will decrease these cost differences and even the playing field. In the long run, the cost-benefit analysis so clearly favors renewable energy, there is no question of its superiority both fiscally and in terms of environmental cost.")

As with most essays, you will then want to broaden your point and link back to the introductory paragraph, if appropriate.

8.2.5: Definition

The rhetorical mode "definition" explains a term that may be contentious, controversial, or ambiguous so that the audience and writer develop a common understanding of the idea.

Learning Objective

Determine the purpose and structure of definiton.

Key Points

In order to be worthy of being defined in an essay, a term should be complex, with meanings that can be traced historically that might even be controversial, and that will yield important insight upon examination.

Definitions include an exploration of the thinking of other scholars on the topic.

Exploring the history of words and phrases can give the writer, as well as the reader, a new respect for the language and its evolution.

Key Term

definition

As a rhetorical mode, a detailed explanation of a term and the way it is being used in a particular context; possibly including historical uses and ideas about the term over time.

What, Exactly, Do You Mean?

A definition essay, or the definition portion of an essay or other type of writing, guides the audience to a common understanding of a word or concept. No need to overuse this form: you won't want to waste your readers' time defining ideas that are in standard usage. At times, though, there will be sufficient vagueness or dispute around a term that you'll want to lead your readers through the process of defining it. And at times, the exploration of a term can be both topical and exciting!

The Definition Litmus Test

Of course, "vague" and "disputed" can exist in various degrees, so here's a way for you to decide whether or not the idea you're putting forward requires a definition:

Is the term complex enough to need clarification? The word "sentience," for example, applied to philosophy, was originally used to distinguish emotion from reason, referring to the former exclusively. It has also been applied, through metaphysics and even science fiction, as a synonym for "consciousness" or "self-awareness," and some traditions even argue that there are degrees of sentience.

Is there contention around the usage of the term? Tension and conflict make for compelling reading. In order to take the reader's time, you'll want to address issues fraught with contention. The idea of what constitutes a "sentient being," for example has been disputed in relation to human and animal rights. Some say "sentience" connotes an ability to suffer and should indicate the need for protection. Others say that the ability to create abstractions is necessary for sentience, linking it to consciousness and therefore excluding animals and fetuses in any class protected as "sentient." 

Does the term have a storied history? Will tracing the origin of the idea offer insight into the usage(s) you are advocating? For example, the word "sentience" comes from the Latin word, "to feel" (sentire) as distinct from "to reason." In the hands of later Westerners, it was used to indicate "the ability to experience sensations," which offers a slight variation. It then entered the metaphysical parlance as "the ability to have subjective experience," and so on.

Will creating a definition move the reader toward a new understanding of a broader issue? Why do you want to define the term? You'll usually have a motive that includes persuading others to adopt one or another view of the topic.

Supporting Your Points

While speculation is not unheard of in definition essays (you are positing an opinion, after all), the bulk of your essay will need to be undergirded by supporting documents: the words of other thinkers on the topic, research done on the subject, and documentation of the various definitions that have evolved over time.

Structure of the Definition Essay

Introduction 

You'll want your reader to know right away why you're choosing to define (or re-define) this term. You can begin with a sentence that illustrates the importance of the term, the reason it needs to be reexamined at this time, or even its controversial nature. 

Body

In the body of the paper, you'll need to address the evolution of the term, the controversy over the term, and the complexities that have caused confusion. Here, we will use the Sociology 2e text on the definition of "family," by OpenStax CNS, as an example for each. They are in the order in which they appear in the original; note that the order in which the authors address the necessary parts of the body paragraph is dictated not by any particular form but by the way they flow best for the reader's understanding.

Controversy - Notice that in addition to referencing definitions that different groups hold of "family," the authors lay out how they define family in this text. They also further define family by distinguishing types of families. They could have gone on to create more categories, but the two mentioned here are sufficient for this introduction to the concept.

The question of what constitutes a family is a prime area of debate in family sociology, as well as in politics and religion. Social conservatives tend to define the family in terms of structure with each family member filling a certain role (like father, mother, or child). Sociologists, on the other hand, tend to define family more in terms of the manner in which members relate to one another than on a strict configuration of status roles. Here, we’ll define family as a socially recognized group (usually joined by blood, marriage, cohabitation, or adoption) that forms an emotional connection and serves as an economic unit of society. Sociologists identify different types of families based on how one enters into them. A family of orientation refers to the family into which a person is born. A family of procreation describes one that is formed through marriage. These distinctions have cultural significance related to issues of lineage.

Complexities - Here, the authors delve deeper into the meaning of "family" by exploring two approaches to its definition: "interactionism" and "functionalism." Notice the supporting reference regarding the latter line of thought. Also notice that the authors are not asking the reader to make a choice between these two streams (as they did in the area of controversy) but are embracing both paradigms as valid and relevant and including them both in their definition.

Drawing on two sociological paradigms, the sociological understanding of what constitutes a family can be explained by symbolic interactionism as well as functionalism. These two theories indicate that families are groups in which participants view themselves as family members and act accordingly. In other words, families are groups in which people come together to form a strong primary group connection and maintain emotional ties to one another over a long period of time. Such families may include groups of close friends or teammates. In addition, the functionalist perspective views families as groups that perform vital roles for society—both internally (for the family itself) and externally (for society as a whole). Families provide for one another’s physical, emotional, and social well-being. Parents care for and socialize children. Later in life, adult children often care for elderly parents. While interactionism helps us understand the subjective experience of belonging to a “family,” functionalism illuminates the many purposes of families and their roles in the maintenance of a balanced society (Parsons and Bales 1956).

Evolution - For this portion of the body, the authors offer a variety of current perspectives on the term "family" using studies to trace popular opinion. They have woven in the traditional interpretations of the concept, but to articulate them more explicitly might have proved tedious reading, since most of us have some familiarity with the history of this particular concept. Even if the historical information proved surprising, the authors were right to focus on current evolution since they are posing the question of how the concept is currently perceived. You will have to decide how far you want to delve into the history of the term you are exploring based on the relevance of each part of its evolution to your current thesis.

People in the United States as a whole are somewhat divided when it comes to determining what does and what does not constitute a family. In a 2010 survey conducted by professors at the University of Indiana, nearly all participants (99.8 percent) agreed that a husband, wife, and children constitute a family. Ninety-two percent stated that a husband and a wife without children still constitute a family. The numbers drop for less traditional structures: unmarried couples with children (83 percent), unmarried couples without children (39.6 percent), gay male couples with children (64 percent), and gay male couples without children (33 percent) (Powell et al. 2010). This survey revealed that children tend to be the key indicator in establishing “family” status: the percentage of individuals who agreed that unmarried couples and gay couples constitute a family nearly doubled when children were added.

The study also revealed that 60 percent of U.S. respondents agreed that if you consider yourself a family, you are a family (a concept that reinforces an interactionist perspective) (Powell 2010). The government, however, is not so flexible in its definition of “family.” The U.S. Census Bureau defines a family as “a group of two people or more (one of whom is the householder) related by birth, marriage, or adoption and residing together” (U.S. Census Bureau 2010). While this structured definition can be used as a means to consistently track family-related patterns over several years, it excludes individuals such as cohabitating unmarried heterosexual and homosexual couples. Legality aside, sociologists would argue that the general concept of family is more diverse and less structured than in years past. Society has given more leeway to the design of a family making room for what works for its members (Jayson 2010).

Conclusion

Your conclusion will offer a clarified working definition of the term, a brief restatement of the evolution of your reasoning, and a comment on the consequences of this decision as you and the reader move forward.

Georgia Wall's ethnographic essay on the meaning of food and foodways to Italian immigrants in London as an exploration of the definition "heritage" offers such a conclusion:

The concept of heritage emerges through the narrative of Sud Italia as a key intersect between private affect and public articulation. Contradictions are implicit in the term, which appeals to institutional authorities, such as UNESCO, for the valorization and reification of apparently intensely personal values and practices; making pizza, or speaking a local language. These tensions are reflected in the pertinence it acquires in individual expression. Heritage is on the one hand an imprecise resource that is seen as embodied in family members and transmitted as an indefinite set of values, affects and practices, to which subscription marks out the boundaries of a collective. On the other, through the concept of “global heritage”, specific perspectives—predominantly Western—transform reservations regarding the present and/or future into a celebration of the past, bestowing significance upon certain practices and artefacts. Heritage therefore represents both personal explorations of meaning and the articulation of group affect and anxiety, and implicates both in hierarchies of power and authority. Further critical attention to the concept promises not only alternative ways of conceptualizing the life course and intergenerational transfer, but also new insights into the mobility of people, ideas, and things through and across time, and the changes in value these processes generate.

 Writing definition essays can give you an entirely new way of looking at writing, having had the experience of delving deeply into the history of a word or phrase. Just like anything else, language is in a process of evolution. As writers, we are documenting the current climate in which these words exist, providing edification wherever it will be useful to the reader.

8.2.6: Description

The rhetorical mode "description" conveys sensory images to the reader so as to deeply connect him or her to the subject.

Learning Objective

Determine the purpose and structure of description.

Key Points

Good description makes the reader feel as if they're experiencing the subject.

Sensory description can connect the reader emotionally to the material.

While detailed sensory images are key to good descriptive passages, it is important to be discerning when selecting both type and number.

Key Terms

Description

A rhetorical mode used to convey a mental image of an object, idea, situation, or event so that the reader feels connected to it through the senses.

sensory

relating to one of the five primary senses: seeing, hearing, tasting, touching, and smelling

A Mode of Transportation

Description is a rhetorical mode you'll want in your toolbox because it places your reader in the scene you're describing. You'll likely relate this tool to fiction, because the best novels use description to capture our imagination. 

Description in Fiction

Note the detailed imagery in this example from the Custom House Introductory to the Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne, which foreshadows the lack of mercy found by Hester Prynne. 

Over the entrance hovers an enormous specimen of the American eagle, with outspread wings, a shield before her breast, and, if I recollect aright, a bunch of intermingled thunderbolts and barbed arrows in each claw. With the customary infirmity of temper that characterizes this unhappy fowl, she appears, by the fierceness of her beak and eye and the general truculency of her attitude, to threaten mischief to the inoffensive community; and especially to warn all citizens. careful of their safety, against intruding on the premises which she overshadows with her wings. Nevertheless, vixenly as she looks, many people are seeking, at this very moment, to shelter themselves under the wing of the federal eagle; imagining, I presume, that her bosom has all the softness and snugness of an eider-down pillow. But she has no great tenderness, even in her best of moods, and, sooner or later,--oftener soon than late,--is apt to fling off her nestlings with a scratch of her claw, a dab of her beak, or a rankling wound from her barbed arrows.

Using Description in Non-Fiction to Persuade or Inform

Note that description is equally useful in essays, especially when you are making an emotional appeal of some kind. Transporting your reader to a different place and time with sensory language can be a very convincing way to make a point. 

The following passage, for example, could be used in a petition to give the Jemaa el-Fnaa, a marketplace in Marrakesh, protected UNESCO status:

During the day it is predominantly occupied by orange juice stalls, water sellers with traditional leather water-bags and brass cups, youths with chained Barbary apes and snake charmers, despite the protected status of these species under Moroccan law.  As the day progresses, the entertainment on offer changes: the snake charmers depart, and late in the day the square becomes more crowded, with Chleuh dancing-boys (it would be against custom for girls to provide such entertainment), story-tellers (telling their tales in Berber or Arabic, to an audience of locals), magicians, and peddlers of traditional medicines. As darkness falls, the square fills with dozens of food-stalls as the number of people on the square peaks.  The square is edged along one side by the Marrakesh souk, a traditional North African market catering both for the common daily needs of the locals, and for the tourist trade. On other sides are hotels and gardens and cafe terraces, and narrow streets lead into the alleys of the medina quarter. Once a bus station, the place was closed to vehicle traffic in the early 2000s. The authorities are well aware of its importance to the tourist trade, and a strong but discreet police presence ensures the safety of visitors.

Vivid description can help your audience make an emotional connection to your subject, which is where the true power of the written word lies.

Writing Descriptive Passages

It's all well and good to read and appreciate descriptive passages, but how does one actually write one while avoiding the common pitfalls of overdoing sensory images or confusing the reader with too little specificity?

To use the following chart, put yourself in the scene you want to describe for your reader. Notice the sensory impressions you witness in your imagination (or in reality) and record them. When you begin writing a descriptive passage, you can use these details to help you convey the sense images you experienced.

Sensory Image Notes for Descriptive Passages

Make notes of the sensations you experience as you imagine the phenomenon you're describing to your reader.

Sensory Image Notes Chart

While you'll want to fill in the chart as completely as possible, you'll want to choose only a selection, only the most salient, to share with the reader. Here's an example of going overboard a bit with description:

Chedwick's hairy arm was slung carelessly over Luce's delicate, birdlike shoulders. Her tiny, crooked nose wriggled involuntarily as the breeze crossed his armpit and gently carried his piquant scent her way. Her hair, meanwhile, had drifted lazily onto his neck and Chedwick had to resist slapping his Adam's apple, so like a spider did it feel on his moist skin.

You can find a balance that sparks the reader's imagination without overdoing the description.  You can even add humor to the mix:

Notice how phrases like, "ready for a calvary charge," "landed with a crash to the floor," "she had landed on all fours on the ground," "this wail of pain and suffering and surprise," "my frantic seven-year-old brain," and "scrambled back up onto the bunkbed with all the grace of a baby unicorn... with one broken leg" serve to draw the listener into the room with Shawn and his sister Amy.

Also notice that in each of the descriptive examples presented here, there is a sense of order, similar to a narrative, that serves to guide the reader's imagination from one place to another. It may help to envision a film camera zooming in and around an area or a subject. 

Whether you're informing or persuading, putting your audience in the scene draws us in and makes us want to know more.

8.2.7: Illustration and Exemplification

Illustration and exemplification offers the reader internal images and stories to which to relate more abstract concepts and ideas.

Learning Objective

Determine the purpose and structure of illustration and exemplification.

Key Points

Images and stories can serve to enhance a reader's understanding of a concept or idea.

While there may be a temptation to rely on cliches as illustrations, original language is usually more effective.

You may choose to simply make reference to a story if you're certain your audience will be familiar with it, but if you're not certain, it's better to retell the story.

One story may be used and revisited throughout an essay as an example of the variations or the intricacies discussed.

It's useful to take the time to create or find an example that most closely relates to the concept you are discussing so that the reader feels an immediate "Aha" of recognition.

Key Terms

illustration

A literary device in which one uses imagery-rich examples to enhance understanding of a concept.

exemplification

A rhetorical mode in which the writer uses one or more pertinent and concrete real or imagined examples of a concept in order to enhance the reader's understanding.

For Instance...

Before enlightenment: chop wood, carry water. After enlightenment: chop wood, carry water.

This short proverb serves to illustrate a concept that's a bit abstract: that not much on the material plane changes once one has attained spiritual transcendence, though a great deal shifts internally. Those on a spiritual path will often chuckle on hearing this, because it is an apt description of the apparent irony of working so hard for something that shows so little outward change -- but which is nonetheless the most meaningful transformation they can envision.

This moment of recognition in your audience is what you'll be going for when you use the tools of illustration and exemplification in your writing. Consider these other examples of illustration, which have served (and yes, perhaps over-served) to clarify some abstract concepts over the years:

"He's barking up the wrong tree." 

"A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush."

"She's just following the herd."

Each of these illustrations gives us a picture in our minds of a situation analogous to the point we're trying to get across and thereby clarifies the concept for us in an instant.

Exemplification serves the same purpose, but explains using specific examples. If you were trying to describe the "law of diminishing returns," for example, in economics, you might say:

While the first ice cream cone tastes creamy and delicious, the eighth ice cream cone is enough to make you sick.

In just one sentence, your reader has a solid idea of the concept of diminishing returns because you've related it to something familiar to most of us. While we haven't all tried eating eight ice cream cones in a row, we're probably able to imagine what it's like, based on similar experiences and extending them through our imagination.

Too Many Ice Creams

An illustration demonstrating the law of diminishing returns.

Too many ice cream cones.

Don't Get Tripped Up

The caution with illustrations and examples is to use original language as often as possible. One or two cliches like that above might serve the point well enough, but your real goal is to use language that will capture the reader's imagination. Originality is the key.

How might you illustrate the following concepts without relying on cliches?

flexibility in parenting (without referring to a willow tree)

the love of a student for his mentor (without using the word "worship")

a suspicion that something isn't safe (staying away from "gut feeling")

a very difficult task (avoiding "heroic")

Now, consider how you would exemplify each of these concepts. Which do you find more effective?

There are little phrases in our language that combine illustration and exemplification. A "Sisyphean task," for example, recalls the story of Sisyphus rolling a boulder up a hill endlessly, only to have it roll back down each time it gets almost to the top. People use it to explain a fruitless and frustrating endeavor. 

A "Herculean task" has its roots in the stories of the challenges Hercules was forced to face and can refer to any deed that is very challenging to perform. (The Greek myths, in fact, are both illustrative and exemplary, as are Aesop's Fables, Grimm's Fairy Tales, and the like.)

Using this kind of reference may be useful if you know your audience is familiar with the stories, but if you're not certain, you'll need to either tell the full story or use a different way of illustrating your point. 

Storytelling

Telling a story can transcend many blocks to a reader's attention, including the most difficult to overcome: defensiveness. Illustration and exemplification are ways to offer the reader a connection to the material you're presenting: drawing them in by getting specific.

Dana had just finished her radio broadcast and was rushing out the door to get to the day care center when her boss called after her. "Dana, I was just talking with Conrad from accounting, and he had some ideas I'd like to bounce off you. Could you come in here for a moment?" Dana stopped and for a split second considered pretending she hadn't heard, but instead she sighed, plastered on a pleasant expression, and followed her employer into his office.

Using this illustration at the beginning of an essay about the many roles women have to play in their daily lives immediately humanizes and depoliticizes the issue for the audience. Instead of telling us what it's like, the author is showing us, and that's the first rule of effective writing.

This device is often used to introduce a concept, and the example or illustration can be revisited throughout the paper to further explicate the points you are making. Dana, for example, might have different experiences based on your ideas of how to solve the problems women face. Or you may simply outline your points without using examples and then revisit Dana at the end of the paper as having implemented all the changes you suggest. Hopefully, she's better off in this new illustrative story.

Cautions

Be judicious and discerning with illustrations and examples. Make sure that you're using the most appropriate example or illustration possible to enhance understanding.

Don't overuse exemplars, or your audience may become confused.

Be cautious about using negative examples or illustrations that either disprove your point or show what happens if your point is not taken. Since imagery and examples tend to stick with a reader, it's generally more effective to show what you do mean, rather than what you don't mean.

If you do refer back to one example throughout the paper, be consistent with the description of the character or scene, changing only one variable at a time to illustrate a point.

How to Write an Illustration/Exemplification Essay

While most of the time, you'll be using illustrations and examples to reinforce points in an essay, there will be times when the whole point of your essay is to explain a concept using illustration and exemplification. When that's the case, here's how to organize it:

Introduction

This paragraph tells your audience about the concept you'll be illustrating. You may wish to initiate one example that you'll be using as the anchoring theme throughout the paper, or you may wish to simply describe the concept here.

Illustrative/Exemplifying Paragraphs

Two or more paragraphs offer illustrations or examples -- usually one per paragraph -- to show the audience what the concept looks/smells/feels/tastes/sounds like in life (real or imagined life). Your examples can also serve to distinguish the concept from similar concepts or opposite concepts, if that will help clarify.

Conclusion

Here, you will restate the concept you're examining and revisit the introductory example, or all examples. Or you may choose to create one final strong example to cement your reader's understanding.

8.2.8: Narration

The narrative rhetorical mode is a natural and appealing way to present or reinforce a perspective in the form of a story.

Learning Objective

Determine the purpose and structure of narration.

Key Points

The narrative rhetorical mode uses storytelling to support a point or to educate an audience on a particular topic.

Storytelling is so deeply ingrained in human relationships and society that readers may be more open to and enthusiastic about narrative as a technique.

Satirical narrative offers one story as an allegorical criticism of a real-life event or situation.

Narrative is made clear by exposing the events in small pieces, in chronological order.

Narrative is made more interesting using literary devices like suspense, imagery and verisimilitude to put the reader in the scene.

Key Terms

Narrative

In writing, telling a story, using descriptive elements, in chronological order, to support a point.

imagery

Language used in description through sensory experience.

verisimilitude

The inclusion of seemingly truthful details appropriate to the story being told so as to make it believable to the reader.

The Thing We Need Most in the World

I had decided to become an anthropologist—in May, 1923—because Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict had presented the tasks of anthropology as more urgent than any other task which lay ready to the choice of a student of human behavior.

What feelings and thoughts does this quote by Margaret Mead bring up in you when you read it? Why does she include this personal glimpse in her preface to the 1949 edition of Coming of Age in Samoa? 

By using even a brief personal story, Mead is helping her readers relate to her and open to her viewpoint. Her mentors and teachers instilled in her a sense of purpose -- an urgent one, at that -- to study human behavior as it happens naturally in a variety of societies and cultures. We can all relate to the feeling of longing for a sense of purpose, even though we may not have an interest in anthropology specifically. Most of us will nod knowingly at her decision because we understand that when one finds a sense of purpose, the will to make it happen follows strongly.

Narrative reports to the reader a story related to the point the writer is trying to make. The reason we use narrative is because storytelling is the most natural way for us humans to communicate. Not unlike ethnography, it's both a way we find of relating to one another and a way we learn to understand our differences.  

We use stories to educate and to entertain. Stories feel friendlier than lists of facts or citations of scientific studies. Humans seem to hunger for stories, and so narrative may be the most well-received of rhetorical devices.

As Philip Pullman said,

After nourishment, shelter and companionship, stories are the thing we need most in the world.

Using Narrative

You'll find narrative useful in an essay when you want your reader to identify with your perspective or with the view taken by one of your characters or subjects. Documentary filmmaking is full of narrative examples: people tell us the story of what happened as if they were witnesses, even if the event happened many years before they were born. It's an effective technique because the filmmaker weaves a tale for us through each narrator.

You can take a similar approach in writing, laying out the facts of a story interspersed with first-person perspectives. Or you might, as Mead did, offer your reader insight into your own thought process as you came to understand the concept or event.

Satire can be a particularly effective form of narrative, exemplified by Animal Farm and Gulliver's Travels, as it exposes the defects in an idea or society by telling a fictional tale of a different social group. Fictional characters stand in for real people or play out social ideas, usually political in nature.

Writing the Narrative Essay

If you are using narration as the primary strategy in writing a paper, you will use some semblance of the following format:

Introduction

Here, you will give a description of the event you will be spelling out in the essay and the reason(s) you're examining it. Why should your audience be interested? Your final introductory sentence will state simply that you are offering a narrative account of the event.

Narrative Paragraphs

You will divide the event into smaller events and give each of these smaller incidents a paragraph. These will be simple explanations of what happened when, though in a more complex essay you might include reasons for each event and comparisons to another, more current circumstance. Accounts by historians, witnesses, or thought leaders can be woven into the narrative to strengthen the perspective you're offering or to offer the possibility of another perspective, in an effort to provide an objective report.

You'll want to make each portion of the narrative interesting to the reader, so use literary devices like suspense, imagery, verisimilitude, and surprise, perhaps along with a little humor, if appropriate, to keep your audience engaged.

Conclusion

You'll leave your reader with a summary of the event and make reference to the reason(s) for examining it that you presented in the introduction. You may decide to end with some ideas about how this event is relevant to the reader and to the world at this time.

The checklist for a narrative essay:

Have a clear purpose.

Tell the story clearly and chronologically.

Make the narrative interesting.

Relate it to something larger than itself, either overtly, or covertly.

Happy storytelling!

8.2.9: Process Analysis

Process analysis describe in detail how something is accomplished or created.

Learning Objective

Determine the purpose and structure of process analysis.

Key Points

Process analysis describes how something is done.

An informative process analysis describes how something happens.

A descriptive process analysis gives instructions for how to do something.

Process analysis consists of breaking a whole into its parts and explaining each part.

The body paragraphs of process analysis essays may be organized in a variety of ways, depending on what will be most useful to a reader seeking clarity of instruction.

Key Terms

Process analysis

A step-by-step explanation of how something is done.

directive analysis

A step-by-step instructive tutorial.

informative analysis

A description of how something happens or is accomplished.

Here's the How

Process analysis answers the "how" question with the idea that readers will be able to replicate a process themselves, or at least thoroughly understand it, after reading the paper. That means it needs to be both detailed and thorough.

It doesn't follow that it needs to be long, however. Consider this example:

Laws begin as ideas. First, a representative sponsors a bill. The bill is then assigned to a committee for study. If released by the committee, the bill is put on a calendar to be voted on, debated or amended. If the bill passes by simple majority (218 of 435), the bill moves to the Senate. In the Senate, the bill is assigned to another committee and, if released, debated and voted on. Again, a simple majority (51 of 100) passes the bill. Finally, a conference committee made of House and Senate members works out any differences between the House and Senate versions of the bill. The resulting bill returns to the House and Senate for final approval. The Government Printing Office prints the revised bill in a process called enrolling. The President has 10 days to sign or veto the enrolled bill.

A complex process has been explained completely by breaking it into parts and briefly describing each step. 

Purposes

There are two possible reasons you'd want to write a process analysis. One is illustrated by the paragraph above explaining how a bill becomes a law: the informative analysis. The purpose here is to help people understand how something happens.

A directive analysis shows the reader how to do something himself or herself. You might teach the reader to fish, for example, or demonstrate the steps to defuse an incendiary device.

In either case, gathering all the steps and putting them into the correct order are your two prewriting tasks.

The Process Analysis Essay

You may, of course, decide to use process analysis as part of any kind of writing, from a blog post about house cleaning to a letter to your grandmother about advanced Google searches. But in academic work, you maybe asked to write a specific essay dedicated to process analysis. Here's how it will look:

Introduction

Here, you'll want to briefly explain the "why" of your paper. What purpose does the soon-to-be-described activity or process serve? You'll also list each step and then state the general idea of what you're describing in the last sentence of the paragraph.

Body Paragraphs

Each paragraph of the body of the paper will describe a specific step or stage of the process. You can begin with the "why" of the step, including how it naturally follows the previous step, if appropriate, and then describe the step in detail. You can end the paragraph with a lead-in to the next stage of the process.

You will want to organize the material in whatever way will be the most useful to your audience. For example, a process analysis of pruning an apple tree will need to be divided based on the stage of growth of the tree, the time of year, and the goal of pruning. In such cases, numbering sections can help if you direct the reader, as in, "If you are dealing with old or neglected trees, skip to Section Two."

Conclusion

Here, you'll recap the steps briefly and expand on the usefulness of the process. As usual with conclusions, you'll move from the specific to the broad. Here is an example of the last sentence of a concluding paragraph:

Whether your work is rescuing an old orchard, cultivating a new one, or simply trimming a single tree, your reward will be a bounty of blooms in the spring, followed in the fall by the supreme sweetness that can only come from fruit you've grown yourself. 

Examples of process analysis are all over the web. It's one of the most exciting benefits of the internet. Here's a creative tutorial:

Attributions

Argumentation and Persuasion

"60 Years After Brown v. Board of Education." https://www.congress.gov/congressional-record/2014/5/19/house-section/article/h4462-1. Congressional Record of the United States CC0 1.0 Universal.

"Ten Point Program." https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ten-Point_Program&oldid=751083961. Wikipedia CC BY-SA.

Classification

"The Five Love Languages." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Five_Love_Languages. Wikipedia CC BY-SA.

"The Four Loves." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Four_Loves. Wikipedia CC BY-SA.

"Original figure by Prudence Tippins. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Prudence Tippins CC BY-SA 3.0.

Cause and Effect

"Alcohol Consumption Among Adolescents: Implications for Public Health." http://www.intechopen.com/books/howtoreference/topics-in-public-health/alcohol-consumption-among-adolescents-implications-for-public-health. InTech Public domain.

"Global Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet." https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/. NASA Public domain.

"Original figure by Prudence Tippins. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Prudence Tippins CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Original figure by Prudence Tippins. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Prudence Tippins CC BY-SA 3.0.

Comparison and Contrast

"Original figure by Prudence Tippins. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Prudence Tippins CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Original figure by Prudence Tippins. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Prudence Tippins CC BY-SA 3.0.

Definition

"Reading; Defining Family." https://courses.lumenlearning.com/intro-to-sociology/chapter/reading-what-is-marriage-what-is-a-family/. Lumen Sociology CC BY 4.0.

"Sentience." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentience. Wikipedia CC BY-SA.

"Foodways, Campervans and the Terms of Mobility: Transnational Belonging, Home, and Heritage in the Narrative of “Sud Italia”." http://www.mdpi.com/2076-0787/5/2/23/htm. Humanities CC BY 4.0.

Description

"TEDxBloomington Shawn Achor "The Happiness Advantage: Linking Positive Brains to Performance"." https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GXy__kBVq1M. YouTube Youtube License.

"The Custom-House Introductory to The Scarlet Letter." http://eldritchpress.org/nh/slcus.html. Eldritch Press Public domain.

"Jemaa el-Fnaa." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jemaa_el-Fnaa. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Original figure by Prudence Tippins. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Prudence Tippins CC BY-SA 3.0.

Illustration and Exemplification

"Handen vol met ijsjes - Holding too many ice creams." https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AHanden_vol_met_ijsjes_-_Holding_too_many_ice_creams_(4900465673).jpg. Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA.

"What Makes a Hero? - Matthew Winkler." https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hhk4N9A0oCA. YouTube Youtube License.

"Handen_vol_met_ijsjes_-_Holding_too_many_ice_creams_4900465673 1.jpg." https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Handen_vol_met_ijsjes_-_Holding_too_many_ice_creams_(4900465673).jpg#filelinks. Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA.

Narration

"The Subject of Anthropology." http://ethnografix.blogspot.com/2010/05/subjects-of-anthropology.html. Ethnografix CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Colbert stays in character at congressional hearing by PBS News Hour." https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewPburLEZyY. YouTube Youtube License.

Process Analysis

"Step-by-Step Tutorial: How to Paint with Alcohol Inks." https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hWA3VJmgGjg&t=28s. YouTube Youtube License.

"How Are Laws Made?." http://www.house.gov/content/learn/legislative_process/. United States House of Representatives Public domain.

9: Writing Across Disciplines

9.1: Introduction to Writing Across Disciplines

9.1.1: Writing in Different Academic Disciplines

Academic writing conventions vary substantially according to discipline—that is, whether one is working in the humanities, the social or natural sciences, or business.

Learning Objective

Identify the key characteristics of writing in different academic disciplines

Key Points

Writing in the humanities usually seeks to analyze, interpret, argue, and/or explain thoughts, reactions, ideas, and emotions. 

Writing in the sciences focuses on informing the reader of new discoveries and assisting readers in discovering truth through facts and solid data provided in detail.

Writing in business often means explaining a situation, event, or change to compel the reader toward a very specific action.

Key Terms

creative writing

The art of crafting texts, such as novels, biographies, short stories, and poems, that fall outside the bounds of professional, journalistic, academic, and technical discourse. Creative writing can be used to tell stories, evoke emotions, build empathy, and inspire new ways of thinking about the world.

genres

Categories or types of writing, including analytical, creative, explanatory, interpretive, and persuasive (among many others).

Academic writing in a college setting can generally be divided into three main categories or genres: writing in the humanities, writing in the sciences, and writing in business. Each genre has its own specific requirements in terms of style, content, and format. 

Writing in the Humanities

Academic writing in the humanities explores questions that deal with human values. The ultimate goal in writing in the humanities is to explain or understand the human experience—to use writing as a tool to reflect upon life. The "humanities," as a discipline, includes not only literature, but also philosophy, ethics, performing arts, fine arts, history, and aspects of anthropology, cultural studies, foreign languages, and linguistics. In a humanities class, you might be asked to analyze a poem, a performance or play, a painting, a film, or even a musical work.

Writing in the Sciences

Science writing includes writing in two main categories—natural sciences and social sciences. In each genre, the writing focuses on informing readers of new discoveries and assisting them in discovering truth through facts and firm, detailed data. 

Research-based writing in the sciences typically uses a formal tone, employs a third-person voice, and avoids personal references and needless adjectives. Depending on the assignment, you might also write an analytical, explanatory, or persuasive paper in any of these fields for a popular or professional audience. 

Natural Sciences

Natural sciences include physical sciences such as biology, chemistry, engineering, geology, and physics. This type of writing is generally concise and includes genres such as lab reports and reviews of scientific literature. 

Social Sciences

The social sciences, on the other hand, focus on human behavior and societies. They involve documenting actual events as they happen. Categories of social science include psychology, anthropology, political science, sociology, education, and economics. 

Writing in Business

Business writing often means explaining a situation, event, or change in order to compel the reader toward a very specific action. Format is key to a well-written business document because its structure needs to allow the reader to quickly find particular sections and a contact person who can answer further questions. Writing in business can include memos, cover letters, resumes, project reports, proposals, thank-you letters, emails, and business plans. While adherence to conventional grammar, spelling, and punctuation is important in every discipline, business writing places the greatest emphasis on mechanics.  

Attributions

Writing in Different Academic Disciplines

"Creative writing." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_writing. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"creative writing." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/creative_writing. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"social science." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/social_science. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Advanced Topics." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Advanced_Topics. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

9.2: Writing in the Humanities

9.2.1: Introduction to Writing in the Humanities

Academic writing in the humanities allows for some flexibility in style and voice, while still following specific conventions of format and documentation.

Learning Objective

Define the subtypes of writing that exist within the humanities

Key Points

Generally, writing in the humanities falls into one of three categories: research writing, interpretive/analytical writing, and creative writing.

When writing a research paper in the humanities, you will collect (and cite!) information from a variety of different sources to support an argument.

In interpretive/analytical writing, you will make a claim about what a particular text (or film, or painting, etc.) means or how it goes about presenting meaning; you will make an argument backed up with specific examples from the text.

In some analytical writing, you may be asked to interpret a text through the lens of a particular theory—for example, modernist theory, psychoanalytic theory, etc.

Creative writing mostly comprises fiction writing, such as poems, short stories, novels, and song lyrics; however, there is also a type of writing called creative nonfiction, in which creative writing centers around real events.

Key Terms

thesis

A claim or theory that must be supported with evidence to argue for or against a specific idea or position.

literary analysis

A piece of academic writing that explores and interprets the meaning behind the story, characters, themes, and purposes of a text.

humanities

The collection of academic disciplines that study human expression, ideas, and thought.

expository

Of a type of writing that explains, informs, or describes a process or concept.

Writing in the Humanities

The ultimate goal in writing in the humanities is to explain or understand the human experience and human values. The humanities—also called the liberal arts—include philosophy, religion, art, music, literature, history, and language. These fields are a broad way of studying and understanding how people express ideas, information, and feelings—the experience of what makes us human. Sometimes mislabeled as the "opposite" of the applied sciences or professional programs such as business, the humanities are in fact at the core of every human endeavor to pursue, discover, and pass on knowledge.

There is no single, all-encompassing type of writing in the humanities. You might write a literary analysis of a novel, story, play, or poem; an analysis that explains how a written or visual text works to persuade a specific audience; an expository essay that shares personal experiences or explores ideas; a research paper investigating the history of a particular theoretical approach; or a persuasive article that works to convince a specific audience of your thesis. Generally, however, writing in the humanities falls into one of three categories: research writing, interpretive/analytical writing, and creative writing.

Research Writing

When writing a research paper in the humanities, you will likely be relying on a number of different sources to support a broader claim that you're trying to make. It is crucial that you correctly cite and attribute all ideas and information that are not common knowledge and not your own. For example, you would need to provide a citation for a statement like, "60% of guns recovered in crimes are sold by unlicensed dealers," which is likely written about in a specific study, but not for a statement like, "William Shakespeare was born in 1564," which is common knowledge and referenced in many different sources.

Interpretive/Analytical Writing

An interpretation, or analysis, involves the discovery of meaning in a text (or film, or painting, etc.) or the production of meaning in the process of reading a text. As such, analytical writing focuses on the questions of "how?" and "why?" It tries to assist the reader in understanding specific events (literary, cultural, or otherwise) rather than just engaging in summary. Writing about literature (poems, short stories, plays, etc.) often involves making an argument that can be backed up with specific examples from the text. For example, a student writing an interpretive paper about a specific book may try to explain the author's attitudes or views on a specific subject matter. The writer of the paper must then use evidence found in that book—specific lines, words, or phrases—to back up their claims.

Theoretical Writing

Theoretical writing involves writing on a topic from a particular theoretical perspective or combination of perspectives (e.g., modernism, deconstructionism, psychoanalytic theory, etc.). Often, students will be asked to combine the analytical and theoretical genres: to write a paper interpreting a specific text or film through the lens of a particular theory or theoretical text. For example, a student might write an essay on Ford Madox Ford's The Good Soldier, investigating how its use of language fits into Nietzsche's theory of human communication. Another example might be a paper interpreting a film using certain tenets of psychoanalytic theory.

Creative Writing

Creative writing attempts to achieve, or create, an effect in the minds of readers. Creative writing can also be used as an outlet for people to get their thoughts and feelings out and onto paper. Poems, short stories, novels, and even song lyrics are all examples of creative writing.

To some, nonfiction can also be considered creative writing because it is done from the author's point of view and may be written in an individual style that engages the reader. In fact, many universities offer courses in "creative nonfiction." Others like to separate nonfiction from creative writing because it deals with real events that actually took place, even if they are written about subjectively.

Attributions

Introduction to Writing in the Humanities

"Writing in the Humanities." https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Humanities. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

9.3: Writing in the Natural and Social Sciences: The Research Paper and the IMRAD Model

9.3.1: Principles of Writing in the Sciences

Scientific writing has two goals: to inform the reader of new developments in a specific field, and to address existing questions with new evidence.

Learning Objective

List the stylistic elements of a successful scientific paper

Key Points

Academic writing in the sciences addresses new scientific developments and clarifications of scientific questions, most frequently in the form of a lab report, journal article, or literature review. The natural sciences include fields such as astronomy, biology, chemistry, and physics; the social sciences include anthropology, economics, linguistics, political science, sociology, and psychology.

Scientific papers commonly follow the IMRAD model, which stands for introduction, method, results, and discussion.

The introduction should describe elements such as the paper's motivation, aim, problem, tested hypothesis, novel contributions, background materials, and an overview of the subsequent material.

The methods section should cover the writer's assumptions, system model, simulation model, and performance measures. For an original study, when, where, and how the study was conducted, what materials were used, and who was included in the study groups should all be included.

In describing the results, the writer should include any empirical data, charts, and plots that convey the answer to the research question, and state whether the research hypothesis was proven or not proven.

The discussion section should analyze the results, state why they matter, contextualize them in relation to existing research, and suggest the implications for future research.

Key Terms

objectivity

The ability to perceive a subject without being influenced by personal biases or emotions.

bias

A definite opinion or position on a subject.

lab report

A step-by-step explanation of the materials, methods, data, results, analysis, conclusions, and references of an experiment.

Scientific research papers report new discoveries, applying evidence to answer questions and identify patterns. Writing in these disciplines often takes the form of peer-reviewed journal articles, literature reviews, grant proposals, case studies, and lab reports.

For example, in an environmental-science lab report, a student might analyze research results to address or clarify a particular scientific development or question:

"This study aims to identify levels of chlorine and phosphorus compounds in a three-mile stretch of the Columbia River, which is an area notable for salmon runs. An analysis of samples taken over a two-year period from various locations within the three-mile stretch revealed the persistence of high levels of phosphorous and chlorine compounds. In the study, we examine the relationship between salmon population and the persistence of these compounds."

Scientific papers require a great deal of preliminary work, including research, field work, and experimentation. Translating that work into writing can be difficult, but academic conventions provide a common template for communicating findings clearly and effectively.

General Style

Writing in the sciences seeks to explain complex phenomena in clear, straightforward prose that minimizes authorial bias. It also includes elements of classical argument, since scientific papers are expected to contextualize, analyze, and interpret the information at hand.

Precision of Language

Lab reports, case studies, and other types of scientific writing must be precise in order to provide results that can be tested and reproduced.

Strive to use simple words and sentences. Some students try to make their work sound more intellectual by using obscure words and long, elaborate sentences. In reality, the academy values precise words and detailed descriptions that are still understandable to a lay audience. Don't try to mimic the stereotype of dense, convoluted academic writing. Instead, write as simply and clearly as possible. Precision is a key component of clarity. 

In the sciences, precision has two main applications: using concrete examples, and using clear language to describe them. Defining your parameters accurately is essential. Don't generalize—provide exact times, measurements, quantities, and other relevant data whenever possible. Using precise, straightforward language to describe your work is also vital. This is not the time or place for flashy vocabulary words or rhetorical flourishes. Style, however, is still important: writing about the sciences doesn't give you a pass to write sloppily.

Objectivity

The sciences aim for objectivity at every stage, from the experimental procedures to the language used in the write-up. Science writing must convince its audience that its offering an important, innovative contribution; as a result, it has an argumentative character. Combining objectivity and argumentative writing can be challenging. Scientific objectivity has two requirements: your hypothesis must be testable, and your results must be reproducible.

The importance of objectivity in the sciences limits writers' ability to use persuasive rhetoric. However, it is still necessary to make a strong case for the importance, relevance, and applicability of your research. Argumentative writing does have a place in scientific papers, but its role is limited. You may use persuasive language in the abstract, introduction, literature review, discussion of results, and conclusion, but avoid using it when you describe your methods and present your results.

Transitions

Many students struggle to transition from one topic to the next. Transitions are well worth mastering—they are the glue that holds your ideas together. Never assume that the reader will correctly guess the relationships between different subtopics; it is your responsibility to explain these connections.

Scientific Reasoning

Keeping your chosen model in mind while you write can help ensure that your decisions and conclusions are logically consistent. Also, watch out for logic traps such as bias and faulty causality. Researchers must account for their own biases, or personal preferences, prejudices, and preconceived notions. These may include cognitive bias (irrational thinking), cultural bias (the imposition of one's own cultural standards upon research subjects), and sampling bias (the tendency during sample collection to include some members of the intended sample more readily than others).

9.3.2: Overview of the IMRAD Model

The body of a scientific paper generally consists of the following sections: introduction (which may include a literature review), methods, results, and discussion.

Learning Objective

Define each element of the IMRAD structure

Key Points

The IMRAD model is the conventional structural approach to academic writing in the sciences. The IMRAD model has four parts: introduction, methods, results, and discussion.

The literature review provides an overview of relevant research in your discipline. This may be included as part of the introduction, or it may stand as its own section.

The methods section should explain how you collected and evaluated your data.

If your project conducts an experiment or an original data analysis, you should include a separate section that reports your results.

The discussion section should analyze your results without reporting any new findings.

Key Terms

quantitative

Of research methods that rely on objective measurements and data analysis.

literature review

A synthesis of the critical points of current knowledge in a given field, which includes significant findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic.

IMRAD

An acronym for Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion—the conventional structure of a scientific paper.

result

The discovery (or absence of discovery) that arises from the scientific method of investigation.

qualitative

Of research methods that create a more subjective understanding by studying a subject's defining qualities and character.

In the natural and social sciences, the format for the body of the paper varies depending on the discipline, audience, and research methods. Generally, the body of the paper contains an introduction, a methods section, results, and discussion. This method is called IMRAD for short. 

These sections are usually separate, although sometimes the results are combined with the methods. However, many instructors prefer that students maintain these divisions, since they are still learning the conventions of writing in their discipline. Most scientific journals prefer the IMRAD format, or variations of it, and even recommend that writers designate the four elements with uniform title headings.  

Try to stay true to each section's stated purpose. You can cite relevant sources in the methods, discussion, and conclusion sections, but again, save the lengthy discussion of those sources for the introduction or literature review. The results section should describe your results without discussing their significance, while the discussion section should analyze your results without reporting any new findings. Think of each section as a course served at a fancy dinner—don't pour the soup into the salad or add leftover scraps from the entree to the dessert!

Introduction

In the first section of your paper, make a case for your new research. Explain to your reader why you chose to research this topic, problem, or issue, and why such research is needed. Explain any "gaps" in the current research on this topic, and explain how your research contributes to closing that gap.

Literature Review

While not always required, the literature review can be an important part of your introduction. It provides an overview of relevant research in your discipline. Its goal is to provide a scholarly context for your research question, and explain how your own research fits into that context. A literature review is not merely a summary of the sources you've found for your paper—it should synthesize the information gathered from those sources in order to demonstrate that work still needs to be done.

Explain your selection criteria early on—why did you choose each of your sources? The literature review should only refer to work that affects your particular question. Seek out a diverse range of sources. Look at primary-research reports and data sets in addition to secondary or analytical sources.

Methods

This section should explain how you collected and evaluated your data. Use the past tense, and use precise language. Explain why you chose your methods and how they compare to the standard practices in your discipline. Address potential problems with your methodology, and discuss how you dealt with these problems. Classify your methods. Are they empirical or interpretive? Quantitative or qualitative? 

After you support your methods of data collection or creation, defend the framework you use to analyze or interpret the data. What theoretical assumptions do you rely on?

After you provide a rationale for your methodology, explain your process in detail. If you are vague or unclear in describing your methods, your reader will have reason to doubt your results. Furthermore, scientific research should present reproducible (i.e., repeatable) results. It will be impossible for other researchers to recreate your results if they can't determine exactly what you did. Include information about your population, sample frame, sample method, sample size, data-collection method, and data processing and analysis.

Results

When you describe your findings, do so in the past tense, using impartial language, with no attempt to analyze the significance of the findings. You will analyze your results in the next section. However, it is perfectly acceptable to make observations about your findings. For instance, if there was an unexpectedly large gap between two data points, you should mention that the gap is unusual, but save your speculations about the reasons for the gap for the discussion section. If you find some results that don't support your hypothesis, don't omit them. Report incongruous results, and then address them in the discussion section. If you find that you need more background information to provide context for your results, don't include it in the results section—go back and add it to your introduction.

Discussion

This is the place to analyze your results and explain their significance—namely, how they support (or do not support) your hypothesis. Identify patterns in the data, and explain how they correlate with what is known in the field, as well as whether they are what you expected to find. (Often, the most interesting research results are those that were not expected!) You should also make a case for further research if you feel the results warrant it.

It can be very helpful to include visual aids such as figures, charts, tables, and photos with your results. Make sure you label each of these elements, and provide supporting text that explains them thoroughly.

Royal Academy School

One of the goals of the literature review is to demonstrate familiarity with a body of knowledge.

9.3.3: Abstract

The abstract is the first (and, sometimes, only) part of a scientific paper people will read, so it's essential to summarize all necessary information about your methods, results, and conclusions.

Learning Objective

Describe the purpose of the abstract

Key Points

Many online databases will only display the abstract of a scientific paper, so the abstract must engage the reader enough to prompt them to read the longer article.

The abstract is the first (and, sometimes, only) part of your paper people will see, so it's important to include all the fundamental information about your introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections.

While a scientific paper itself is usually written for a specialized professional audience, the abstract should be understandable to a broader public readership (also known as a "lay audience").

Key Term

abstract

The overall summary of a scientific paper, usually fewer than 250 words.

The Importance of the Abstract

The abstract of a scientific paper is often the only part that the reader sees. A well-written abstract encapsulates the content and tone of the entire paper. Since abstracts are brief (generally 300–500 words), they do not always allow for the full IMRAD structure. A specialized audience may read further if they are interested, and the abstract is your opportunity to convince them to read the rest. Additionally, the abstract of an article may be the only part that is available through electronic databases, published in conference proceedings, or read by a professional journal referee. Hence abstracts should be written with a non-specialized audience (or a very busy specialized audience) in mind.  

What to Address in the Abstract     

While each medium of publication may require different word counts or formats for abstracts, a good general rule is to spend one to two sentences addressing each of the following (do not use headers or use multiple paragraphs; just make sure to address each component):

Summarize Your Introduction

This is where you will introduce and summarize previous work about the topic. State the question or problem you are addressing, and describe any gaps in the existing research.

Summarize Your Methods

Next, you should explain how you set about answering the questions stated in the background. Describe your research process and the approach(es) you used to collect and analyze your data.

Summarize Your Results

Present your findings objectively, without interpreting them (yet). Results are often relayed in formal prose and visual form (charts, graphs, etc.). This helps specialized and non-specialized audiences alike grasp the content and implications of your research more thoroughly.

Summarize Your Conclusions

Here is where you finally connect your research to the topic, applying your findings to address the hypothesis you started out with. Describe the impact your research will have on the question, problem, or topic, and include a call for specific areas of further research in the field.

9.3.4: Introduction and Thesis

In academic writing, the introduction and thesis statement form the foundation of your paper.

Learning Objective

Identify elements of a successful introduction

Key Points

Writing in the social sciences should adopt an objective style without figurative and emotional language. Be detailed; remain focused on your topic; be precise; and use jargon only when writing for a specialist audience.

In the social sciences, an introduction should succinctly present these five points: the topic, the question, the importance of the question, your approach to the question, and your answer to the question.

A thesis statement is a brief summary of your paper's purpose and your central claim. The thesis statement should be one to three sentences in length, depending on the complexity of your paper, and it should appear in your introduction.

Key Terms

thesis statement

A claim, usually found at the end of the first paragraph of an essay or similar document, that summarizes the main points and arguments of the paper.

introduction

An initial section that summarizes the subject material of a book or article.

Social sciences

The social sciences include academic disciplines like anthropology, sociology, psychology, and economics

The introduction can be the most challenging part of a paper, since many writers struggle with where to start. It helps to have already settled on a thesis. If you're feeling daunted, you can sometimes write the other sections of the paper first. Then, when you've organized the main ideas in the body, you can work "backward" to explain your topic and thesis clearly in the first paragraph.

Present Main Ideas

The introduction to a social-science paper should succinctly present the main ideas. The goal of the introduction is to convince the reader that you have a valid answer to an important question. In order to do that, make sure your introduction covers these five points: the topic, the question, the importance of the question, your approach to the question, and your answer to the question.

Structuring Your Ideas

A popular introduction structure is the concept-funnel—begin with general information about your topic, narrow the focus and provide context, and end by distilling your paper's specific approach. As you move from general background information to the specifics of your project, try to create a road map for your paper. Mirror the structure of the paper itself, explaining how each piece fits into the bigger picture. It is usually best to write the introduction after you have made significant progress with your research, experiment, or data analysis to ensure you have enough information to write an accurate overview.

Papers in the sciences generally aim for an objective voice and stay close to the facts. However, you have a bit more freedom at the beginning of the introduction, and you can take advantage of that freedom by finding a surprising, high-impact way to highlight your issue's importance. Here are some effective strategies for opening a paper:

Make a provocative or controversial statement

State a surprising or little-known fact

Make a case for your topic's relevance to the reader

Open with a relevant quote or brief anecdote

Take a stand against something

Stake a position for yourself within an ongoing debate

Talk about a challenging problem or paradox

Establishing Relevance

After you engage your reader's attention with the opening, make a case for the importance of your topic and question. Here are some questions that may help at this stage: Why did you choose this topic? Should the general public or your academic discipline be more aware of this issue, and why? Are you calling attention to an underappreciated issue, or evaluating a widely acknowledged issue in a new light? How does the issue affect you, if at all?

Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is a brief summary of your paper's purpose and central claim. The thesis statement should be one to three sentences, depending on the complexity of your paper, and should appear in your introduction. A thesis statement in the social sciences should include your principal findings and conclusions. If writing about an experiment, it should also include your initial hypothesis. While there is no hard-and-fast rule about where to state your thesis, it usually fits naturally at or near the end of the introductory paragraph (not later than the very beginning of the second paragraph). The introduction should provide a rationale for your approach to your research question, and it will be easier to follow your reasoning if you reveal what you did before you explain why you did it.

Testability

Your thesis is only valid if it is testable. Testability is an extension of falsifiability, a principle indicating that a claim can be proven either true or false. The statement, "all Swedish people have blonde hair" is falsifiable—it could be proven false by identifying a Swede with a different hair color. For a hypothesis to be testable, it must be possible to conduct experiments that could reveal observable counterexamples. This is the equivalent of the principle in the humanities that a claim is only valid if someone could also reasonably argue against it. 

Thesis Statements to Avoid

The statement without a thesis: A statement of a fact, opinion, or topic is not a thesis. Push the thesis statement beyond the level of a topic statement, and make an argument.

The vague thesis: If your thesis statement is too general, it will not provide a "road map" for readers.

The "value judgment" thesis: Your argument should not assume a universal, self-evident set of values. Value-judgment-based arguments tend to have the structure " is bad; is good," or " is better than ." "Good," "bad," "better," and "worse" are vague terms that do not convey enough information for academic arguments. In academic writing, it is inappropriate to assume that your reader will know exactly what you mean when you make an overly general claim. The burden of proof, and thorough explanation, is on you.

The oversized thesis claim. There is only so much material you can cover within a page limit, so make sure your topic is focused enough that you can do it justice. Also, avoid arguments that require evidence you do not have. There are some arguments that require a great deal of research to prove—only tackle these topics if you have the time, space, and resources.

9.3.5: Methods

A methods section is a detailed description of how a study was researched and conducted.

Learning Objective

Identify the elements of a successful methods section

Key Points

Scientific objectivity requires that your paper have a testable hypothesis and reproducible results.

Your methods section should include all information necessary for your readers to exactly recreate your experiment; this gives others a chance to test your findings and demonstrates that your project meets the criteria of scientific objectivity.

To prove that your paper meets those criteria, you need to include a detailed description of how you conducted your experiment and reached your conclusions.

Specifically, your methods section should include details about your assumptions, your variables and participants, and what materials and metrics you used—essentially, any important information about when, where, and how the study was conducted.

Key Terms

IMRAD

Currently the most prominent norm for the structure of a scientific paper; an acronym for "introduction, methods, results, and discussion."

testable

Also known as falsifiable; able to be disproven.

reproducible

Capable of being reproduced at a different time or place and by different people.

IMRAD: The Methods Section

Your methods section should include a full, technical explanation of how you conducted your research and found your results. It should describe your assumptions, questions, simulations, materials, participants, and metrics.

Because the methods section is generally read by a specialized audience with an interest in the topic, it uses language that may not be easily understood by non-specialists. Technical jargon, extensive details, and a formal tone are expected.

The methods section should be as thorough as possible since the goal is to give readers all the information necessary for them to recreate your experiments. Scientific papers need a thorough description of methodology in order to prove that a project meets the criteria of scientific objectivity: a testable hypothesis and reproducible results.

Purpose of the Methods Section: Testability

Hypotheses become accepted theories only when their experimental results are reproducible. That means that if the experiment is conducted the same way every time, it should always generate the same, or similar, results. To ensure that later researchers can replicate your research, and thereby demonstrate that your results are reproducible, it is important that you explain your process very clearly and provide all of the details that would be necessary to repeat your experiment. This information must be accurate—even one mistaken measurement or typo could change the procedure and results drastically.

Example Methods Section

The following is an example of a methods section of a scientific paper:

"The study focused on a three-hundred-mile stretch of the Columbia River, which has been the stretch of the river most studied historically. Five locations were selected, each sixty miles apart. Each location had three different water samples selected for three levels of the water: surface water (3-inch depth), mid-level water (12-inch depth), and water from the bottom of the river (36-inch depth). Samples were taken three times a day, seven days a week, during a period stretching from the fourth month before until the fourth month after the year's salmon run."

9.3.6: Results

The results section of a scientific paper objectively presents the empirical data collected in a study.

Learning Objective

Identify the information that belongs in the results section

Key Points

After discussing the methodology of your study, describe the outcomes that you measured or observed. 

When presenting the findings, avoid drawing conclusions. Instead provide and explain the data you collected. This is your opportunity to tell the reader what you found without drawing any explicit conclusions from it.

Use charts, tables, or graphs to present your findings in a way that is clear and easily understood.

Key Terms

summary

A condensed version of the background or main ideas of a text.

results

The section of a scientific paper that objectively presents the data collected or observed in a research study.

methodology

A detailed explanation of specific components of a research project, such as phases, tasks, methods, techniques, and tools.

Writing the Results Section

The results section is where you state the outcome of your experiments. It should include empirical data, any relevant graphics, and language about whether the thesis or hypothesis was supported. Think of the results section as the cold, hard facts.

Style

Since the goal of the scientific paper is to present facts, use a formal, objective tone when writing. Avoid adjectives and adverbs; instead use nouns and verbs. Passive voice is acceptable here: you can say "The stream was found to contain 0.27 PPM mercury," rather than "I found that the stream contained 0.27 PPM mercury." 

Presenting Information

Using charts, graphs, and tables is an excellent way to let your results speak for themselves. Many word-processing and spreadsheet programs have tools for creating these visual aids. However, make sure you remember to title each figure, provide an accompanying description, and label all axes so that your readers can understand exactly what they're looking at.

Was Your Hypothesis Supported?

This is the part where it is the most difficult to be objective. If you followed the scientific method, you began your research with a hypothesis. Now that you have completed your research, you have found that either your hypothesis was supported or it was not. In the results section, do not attempt to explain why or why not your hypothesis was supported. Simply say, "The results were not found to be statistically significant," or "The results supported the hypothesis, with  significance," or the like. Be objective—there will be time for interpretation later. 

Getting Ready for the Conclusion

It will be tempting to start drawing conclusions as you write the results section. You may also want to compare your results to the outcomes of other researchers' experiments. Resist the urge! You'll get your chance to draw conclusions in the conclusion section. The most you should do in the results section is present the data your experiments produced. Think of it as laying the foundation for what you will conclude later on in your paper.

9.3.7: Discussion and Conclusion

The discussion section of a scientific paper analyzes and interprets the results of a study, while the conclusion explains implications for further research. 

Learning Objective

Differentiate between the discussion section and the conclusion

Key Points

The discussion section should briefly remind the reader of your research question and principal findings, and then interpret your results.

Be sure to acknowledge other possible interpretations of your results in the discussions section, and admit your project's limitations.

In your conclusion, restate the research question, the main results, and the meaning of those results. However, avoid simply repeating your discussion section.

In your conclusion you may also discuss the significance of your research for future research, public policy, personal decision-making, or other spheres of influence.

Key Terms

conclusion

The end, finish, close, or last part of something.

discussion

Text giving further detail on a subject.

Discussion

The discussion section of a scientific paper should interpret the results of your research. First, briefly remind your reader of your research question and principal findings by briefly restating these points. Then explain the results themselves. Discuss how they fit (or do not fit) your hypothesis, and whether they are consistent with the results of similar research projects. Did you encounter anything surprising or idiosyncratic? If so, why is it significant? What might have caused it? Build on the research question you posed in the introduction, and the context you established in the literature review. Make a case for the meaning and significance of your findings, and support your case by connecting it to related research.

Acknowledge other possible interpretations of your results, and admit your project's limitations. Your argument will be more convincing if you can anticipate your reader's potential objections to your claims and address them directly in the discussion section. For example, generalizability (or how applicable a study's results are to a more general population) is more limited with a smaller or less homogeneous sample. If your research sample is small or limited, be sure to acknowledge those limitations and address how they might have affected the results.

If your interpretation has broader implications, you can either suggest them in the discussion section or introduce them in a separate conclusion. You don't have to write a conclusion if your points fit neatly into the discussion section, but a conclusion is helpful if you want to make suggestions that stretch beyond the scope of your project.

Conclusion

The conclusion section is not strictly necessary in the social sciences, but it can be helpful to provide a succinct summary of your work. It is also a good place to make bold speculations about the implications of your project. You should discuss, somewhere in your paper, the significance of your research for future research, public policy, personal decision-making, or other spheres of influence. But think carefully about whether you could benefit from the distancing effect of putting these implications in a separate conclusion.

The conclusion should not repeat your discussion section. It should take one to three paragraphs to restate the research question, the main results, and the meaning of those results. The conclusion then reaches beyond the suggestions you made in the body of the paper to emphasize the importance of the results and their potential consequences.

Conclusion

Conclusions have been an important part of writing for centuries.

Attributions

Principles of Writing in the Sciences

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Objectivity (science)." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(science). WIKIPEDIA CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Case study." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study. WIKIPEDIA CC BY-SA 3.0.

"IMRAD." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMRAD. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Precision." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Social science." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science. WIKIPEDIA CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Literature review." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_review. WIKIPEDIA CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Natural science." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science. WIKIPEDIA CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Case study." https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Psychology/Case_Studies. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Writing in the Sciences." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"objectivity." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/objectivity. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"bias." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bias. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Test tubes and other recipients in chemistry lab by Horia Varlan in Test tube on Fotopedia - Images for Humanity." http://www.fotopedia.com/items/flickr-4273968004. Fotopedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

Overview of the IMRAD Model

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Writing in the Sciences." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences%23Social_Sciences. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"result." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/result. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"literature review." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/literature%20review. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Social Research Methods/Reading and Writing Social Research." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Research_Methods/Reading_and_Writing_Social_Research. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Royal Academy School - Scientists of Note | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/swanksalot/6298615953/. Flickr CC BY-SA.

Abstract

Introduction and Thesis

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Devcompage | A learning resource on development communication." http://devcompage.com/. devcompage CC BY-SA.

"thesis statement." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thesis%20statement. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"introduction." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/introduction. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"The Cain Project in Engineering and Professional Communication, Three Modules on Clear Writing Style: An Introduction to The Craft of Argument, by Joseph M. Williams and Gregory Colomb. September 17, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m17223/latest/?collection=col10551/latest. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Writing in the Sciences." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences%23Social_Sciences. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Social Research Methods/Reading and Writing Social Research." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Research_Methods/Reading_and_Writing_Social_Research. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

" Google Image Result for http://s0.geograph.org.uk/photos/93/28/932893_55ff837b.jpg." http://www.google.com/imgres?hl=en&sa=X&biw=1334&bih=723&tbs=sur:fmc&tbm=isch&tbnid=Eui9_9JhKzNXRM:&imgrefurl=http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/932893&docid=VfK4jFPSAn-90M&imgurl=http://s0.geograph.org.uk/photos/93/28/932893_55ff837b.jpg&w=640&h=480&ei=IBe6T4aXD-HG6AHirfjDCg&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=188&vpy=63&dur=29&hovh=193&hovw=258&tx=148&ty=96&sig=107678383186574758964&page=1&tbnh=142&tbnw=200&start=0&ndsp=13&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0,i:148. Google CC BY-SA.

"300 Social sciences | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." http://www.flickr.com/photos/helder/147680983/in/photostream/. Flickr CC BY-SA.

Methods

"IMRAD." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMRAD. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Writing in the Sciences." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"reproducible." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/reproducible. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

Results

"Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.

"result." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/result. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"summary." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/summary. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"methodology." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/methodology. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Rhetoric and Composition/Writing in the Sciences." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences%23Elements_of_the_Natural_Sciences_Paper. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

Discussion and Conclusion

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"discussion." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/discussion. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

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"Social Research Methods/Reading and Writing Social Research." http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Research_Methods/Reading_and_Writing_Social_Research. Wikibooks CC BY-SA 3.0.

"conclusion.png." https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Collier_conclusion.jpg. Wikimedia Commons Public domain.

9.4: Writing in Business

9.4.1: Introduction to Writing in Business

Business writing consists of many different types, all of which require a specific tone and organizational structure.

Learning Objective

List the stylistic elements of successful business writing

Key Points

Business writing includes reports, memos, PR communications, email, social media, and much more.

Each type of business writing has a different audience, purpose, organization, and style.

Business writing is always formal and uses a third-person voice ("he," "she," "they").

Concision is extremely important in business writing. Eliminate any language that is not essential to your purpose.

Key Terms

primary audience

The reader or readers for whom a piece of writing is intended.

secondary audience

The reader or readers who may also read a piece of writing, even if the piece was not originally intended for them.

genre

A category or type of writing.

Business writing has changed a great deal since the days of typed memos and reports. While reports and memos are of course still relevant, the world of business writing has expanded to include email, PR communications, social media, and much more. Each genre of business writing carries its own conventions of organization, voice, and audience. 

Genre

Some of the writing genres you will encounter in the business world include the following: resumes and cover letters, proposals, instructions, business and sales letters, emails, business plans, case analyses, memoranda, performance reviews, and professional biographies. The audiences and purposes will vary with each type of writing (and even within genres themselves).

Organization

Different types of business writing require different patterns of organization. Depending on whether you want to simply inform, convey good news, make a direct request, convey bad news, or persuade your audience of something, you might choose from any of the following organizational structures:

Direct and to the point; starts right away with a problem or request

Detailed explanation: state the problem and offer ideas for solutions

Present ideas and evidence first, then conclusions or recommendations

Style, Voice, and Tone

Writing in the business world is always formal and uses a third-person voice ("he," "she," "they"), although you may use contractions to sound more natural. In some cases, such as emails and sales letters, a slightly less formal tone ("I" and "you") is permissible, but the subject and voice should always remain businesslike. Above all, less is more—be as concise as possible, eliminating needless words that are not essential to your purpose.

Audience

You probably already know how to properly address the primary audience (the person or persons who are the intended recipients). It's also crucial to remember that any and all forms of business writing should be appropriate for secondary audiences as well (i.e., people or groups for whom the writing may not have been originally intended, but who might read it anyway). For example, you might submit a proposal to your direct supervisor (your primary audience), who in turn may pass it on to his or her supervisor, a task force or committee, or some other secondary audience.

Attributions

Introduction to Writing in Business

10: Writing a Paper in MLA Style (Humanities)

10.1: Introduction to MLA Style

10.1.1: When to Use MLA Style

MLA style, created by the Modern Language Association of America, is the primary citation style used for papers in literature and media studies.

Learning Objective

Recognize when to use MLA style in writing

Key Points

If you take a writing or literature class in college, you will almost certainly need to write all your papers in MLA style.

MLA style is the house style of the Modern Language Association of America (MLA).

MLA style provides guidelines for evaluating and documenting sources.

Key Term

MLA style

A common citation and formatting style used in composition, literature, and media studies.

MLA style is one of the most common citation and formatting styles you will encounter in your academic career. Any piece of academic writing can use MLA style, from a one-page paper to a full-length book. It is widely used by in many high school and introductory college English classes, as well as scholarly books and professional journals. If you are writing a paper for a literature or media studies class, it is likely your professor will ask you to write in MLA style.

The Two MLA Style Guides

MLA style, the house style of the Modern Language Association of America (MLA), has two official publications. The most recently published editions of both works have been updated in light of advancements in computer word-processing programs and electronic and digital publishing practices.

For Students

The first MLA style guide is the MLA Handbook. This publication targets high school and college students and teachers, explaining the style and formatting rules relevant to student writing; this is the publication of most interest to you. The most recent version of the MLA Handbook is the eighth edition, published in 2016.

For Academic Professionals

The second is the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing, called the MLA Style Manual for short. This publication targets academic scholars and professors, explaining the style and formatting rules relevant to the publication of MLA-style books and journal articles in literature and media studies. The most recent version of the MLA Style Manual is the third edition, published in 2008.

Following the advent of the 8th edition of the MLA Handbook in spring 2016, the MLA stated that the MLA Style Manual would be declared out of print effective September 1, 2016.

The Purpose of the MLA Handbook

The MLA style guide aims to accomplish several goals:

to define plagiarism and explain how to avoid it;

to provide guidelines for evaluating the reliability of sources;

to ensure proper attribution of ideas to their original sources, for the sake of academic honesty and intertextual dialogue;

and to ensure consistent formatting and presentation of information, for the sake of clarity and ease of navigation.

Attributions

When to Use MLA Style

"MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLA_Handbook_for_Writers_of_Research_Papers. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"MLA Style Manual." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLA_Style_Manual. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

10.2: MLA: Quotations and Citations

10.2.1: MLA: Block Quotations

In MLA style, format quotations of more than four lines of prose or more than three lines of verse as block quotations.

Learning Objective

Recognize when to use block quotations in MLA style

Key Points

A regular quotation is part of a sentence within a paragraph in your paper; however, for longer quotations (more than four lines of prose, or more than three lines of verse), format the excerpt as a block quotation.

A block quotation begins on its own line, is not enclosed in quotation marks, and—if applicable— has an in-text citation after the final punctuation.

Block quotations are double-spaced, like the rest of your paper, and indented half an inch from the left margin.

When to Use a Block Quotation

A typical quotation is enclosed in double quotation marks and is part of a sentence within a paragraph of your paper. However, if you want to quote more than four lines of prose (or three lines of verse) from a source, you should format the excerpt as a block quotation, rather than as a regular quotation within the text of a paragraph. Most of the standard rules for quotations still apply, with the following exceptions: a block quotation will begin on its own line, it will not be enclosed in quotation marks, and its in-text citation will come after the ending punctuation, not before it.

Block quotation

An example of a properly formatted block quotation

Spacing and Alignment

The entire block quotation should be indented half an inch from the left margin. The first line of the excerpt should not be further indented, unless you are quoting multiple paragraphs—in which case the first line of each quoted paragraph should be further indented 0.25 inches.

To better visually distinguish a block quotation from the surrounding text, be sure to leave an extra (blank) line both above and below your block quotation.

If quoting more than three lines of verse, maintain the original line breaks.

10.2.2: MLA: In-Text Citations and Parentheticals

In MLA, there are different formats for citing sources in text depending on the type of source.

Learning Objective

Arrange in-text citations in MLA style

Key Points

In-text citations are where you tell the reader, within the text of your paper, which source you are citing.

The correct formatting for an in-text citation varies depending on how many authors created the work being cited.

Formatting also varies depending on whether you cite the same source more than once, whether you cite multiple works by the same author, and whether you cite sources with page numbers. 

In your paper, when you quote directly from a source in their words, or when you paraphrase someone else’s idea, you need to tell the reader what that source is so the author gets credit for their words and ideas. When you tell the reader which source you are referring to within the text of your paper, this is called an in-text citation.

Source by a Single Author

To cite this type of reference in the text, you should use what is known as a parenthetical—the citation information enclosed in parentheses—at the end of the relevant sentence. The parenthetical should include simply the author’s last name (with no first or middle initial). If you’re citing a direct quote, you also need to include the page number. For example:

Social representations theory posits that reified scientific knowledge that exists at the boundaries of a given society will be interpreted in meaningful and often simplified forms by the majority (Pauling 113).

Social representations theory “proposes a new hypothesis …” (Pauling 113).

If you choose, you can integrate the author’s name into the sentence itself—this is known as a "signal phrase"—and provide just the page number in parentheses:

Pauling (113) posits that "scientific knowledge..."

Source by Two Authors

Authors should be presented in the order in which they are listed on the published article. If you include the authors’ names in the parenthetical, use the word "and" between the two names. For example:

Social representations theory posits that reified scientific knowledge that exists at the boundaries of a given society will be interpreted in meaningful and often simplified forms by the majority (Pauling and Liu 113).

Using a signal phrase:

Pauling and Liu (113) posit that ...

Source by Three or More Authors

For an article with three or more authors, to save space and to make your paper easier to read, you should use only the first author’s last name followed by “et al.”, and then the page number, if applicable (“et al.” is short for “et alia,” which means “and other people” in Latin—much like “etc.” is short for “et cetera,” which means “and other things” in Latin.):

(Pauling et al. 113)

Using a signal phrase:

Pauling et al. (113) posit ...

Source by No Known Author

For an article with no known author, use the source title in place of the author's name, formatted as it would be (i.e., italicized or enclosed in quotation marks) in your Works Cited section:

("Bilingual Minds, Bilingual Bodies" 4)

Using a signal phrase:

The article "Bilingual Minds, Bilingual Bodies" (4) claims ...

Multiple Publications by Different Authors

If you need to cite multiple publications by different authors in the same sentence, you should list the multiple sources in alphabetical order by author and use a semicolon to separate them.

... majority (Alford 24; Pauling 113; Sirkis 96).

Multiple Publications by the Same Author

If an author has multiple publications that you want to cite in the same sentence, include the author's name in a signal phrase and the titles of the referenced sources instead in the parentheticals:

Achenbach's recent research ("Bibliography of Published Studies" 17) demonstrates a radical shift in thinking from his stance of a decade ago ("School-Age Assessments" 39)...

Source Without Page Numbers

If you need to cite a source without page numbers, include other location information if it that information is consistently available to all users. For example, if you're citing an ebook without page numbers, include a comma followed by the chapter number instead:

(Pauling and Liu, ch. 6)

Using a signal phrase:

Pauling and Liu (ch. 6) posit that ...

10.2.3: MLA: The Works Cited Section

In MLA style, the sources you cite in your paper are listed all together at the end, in the Works Cited section.

Learning Objective

Arrange the Works Cited section in MLA style

Key Points

In MLA style, all the sources you cite throughout the text of your paper are listed together at the end, in the Works Cited section. 

There are nine core elements of a Works Cited entry: Author. Title of source. Title of container, Other contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Publication date, Location. Each element is followed by a comma or a period (as shown), though the final element in a Works Cited entry is always followed by a period. 

Only the elements relevant to a particular source should be included in its Works Cited entry.

The Works Cited section is arranged alphabetically. In addition, the first and subsequent lines of each citation should be indented a half an inch from the left margin. 

In MLA style, all the sources you cite throughout the text of your paper are listed together in full in the Works Cited section, which comes after the main text of your paper.

Constructing a Citation

There are nine core elements of a Works Cited entry: 

Author. 

Title of source. 

Title of container, 

Other contributors, 

Version, 

Number, 

Publisher, 

Publication date, 

Location. 

Each element is followed by a comma or a period (as shown), though the final element in a Works Cited entry is always followed by a period. 

Only the elements relevant to a particular source should be included in its Works Cited entry.

A brief explanation of each of the nine elements follows. Consult the MLA Handbook, 8th Edition for more information. The MLA website also contains a helpful guide, including a practice template: 

1. Author.

If the source is written by one author, the citation should begin with the author's last name, a comma, the rest of the author's name, and then a period. For example, if you're citing a source written by Zadie Smith, the citation should begin:

Smith, Zadie. 

If the source is written by two authors, the citation should begin with the first author's last name, a comma, the rest of the first author's name, a comma, the second author's full name (in the normal order), and then a period. For example, if you're citing a source written by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner, the citation should begin: 

Twain, Mark, and Charles Dudley Warner.

If the source is written by three or more authors, the citation should begin with the first author's last name, a comma, the rest of the first author's name, a comma, and then et. al., which means "and others." For example, if you're citing a source written by Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams, the citation should begin:

Booth, Wayne C., et al. 

2. Title of Source.

If the source is what the MLA Handbook describes as "self-contained and independent," such as a book or a collection of essays, stories, or poems by multiple authors, include the title in italics, followed by a period. For example, if you're citing Zadie Smith's novel Swing Time, the citation should begin:

Smith, Zadie. Swing Time.

If the source, on the other hand, is a work that appears within a larger work, such as a poem that appears with an anthology, include the title in quotations marks instead. (Make sure that the period following the title appears inside the closing quotation mark.) For example, if you're citing Seamus Heaney's poem "Digging" from his collection Death of Naturalist, the citation should begin:

Heaney, Seamus. "Digging." 

 3. Title of Container,

A container, in this context, is the larger work that contains the shorter work being cited. Seamus Heaney's poetry collection Death of a Naturalist, for example, is the container for his poem "Digging." 

If the source you're citing appears within a container, continue the citation by including the title of the container in italics, followed by a comma: 

Heaney, Seamus. "Digging." Death of a Naturalist,     

Here's another example. In this case, the website Slate is the container for the article "Hackers Breached San Francisco's Transit System and Demanded a Ransom":

Grabar, Henry. "Hackers Breached San Francisco's Transit System and Demanded a Ransom" Slate,

4.  Other contributors,

Sometimes there are other contributors to a work—in addition to the author or authors—who should be included in the Works Cited entry. Include a contributor if their contribution helps further identify the work or if their contribution is particularly relevant to your research.

If you include a contributor in your work Cited entry, add a description of the contribution ( "adapted by," "directed by," "edited by," "illustrated by," etc.), followed by the full name of the contributor and a comma.

For example, if you're citing a work that has been translated from another language, continue the citation by including the phrase "translated by" followed by the full name of the translator and a comma:

Calvino, Italo. Invisible Cities. Translated by William Weaver,

Or, for example, if your research relates to the illustrations contained within a work, continue the citation by including the phrase "Illustrated by" followed by the full name of the illustrator and a comma:

Bloom, Amy Beth. Little Sweet Potato. Illustrated by Noah Z. Jones,

5. Version,

Some works are published in different versions or editions. If you're citing a particular version of a work, continue the citation by including the version followed by a comma. Here are two examples:

Nelson, Philip. Biological Physics: Energy, Information, Life. Updated Version,

King, Laura A. The Science of Psychology: An Appreciative Review. 3rd ed.,

6. Number,

Similarly, some works are published in multiple numbers, volumes, issues, episodes, or seasons. If you're citing a particular number of a work, continue the citation by including the number followed by a comma. Here are a few examples: 

"Indigenous Rights in Canada: Contested Wilderness." The Economist, Vol. 421, Number 9017,

Kirkman, Rodman. The Walking Dead. Illustrated by Charlie Adlard and Cliff Rathburn, Vol. 4: The Heart's Desire, 

"Airport 2010." Modern Family. Written by Dan O'Shannon and Bill Wrubel, season 1, episode 22, 

7. Publisher,

If the source is distributed by a publisher, blog network, or other organization, continue the citation by including the publisher, followed by a comma. Here are two examples:

Miranda, Lin-Manuel, and Jeremy McCarter. Hamilton: The Revolution. Grand Central Publishing, 

McMillan, Robert. "Her Code Got Humans on the Moon—and Invented Software Itself." Wired, Condé Nast, 

8. Publication Date,

Continue the citation by including the available publication date information most relevant to your source, followed by a comma. If you're citing a book, for example, a copyright year will suffice:

Fish, Stanley. How Milton Works. Belknap Press, 2001, 

If you're citing a tweet, on the other hand, provide the day, month, year, and time, as some people and organizations tweet more than once a day: 

@POTUS. "This Thanksgiving, we give thanks for our blessings, and work to fulfill the timeless responsibility we have as Americans to serve others." Twitter, 24 Nov. 2016, 2:05 p.m., 

9. Location.

Location, in this context, refers to the location (e.g. page number(s), DOI, URL, etc.) of a source within a container or the physical location of a live performance, lecture, or presentation. If applicable, continue the citation by including the location information, followed by a period. Here are a few examples: 

Heaney, Seamus. "Casualty." Field Work: Poems, Farrar, Straux, and Giroux, 2009, pp. 13-16. 

Grabar, Henry. "Hackers Breached San Francisco's Transit System and Demanded a Ransom," Slate, TheSlateGroup, 28 Nov. 2016, slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2016/11/28/san_francisco_muni_hacked_for_a_ransom_payment.html.

Ernst, Steve, and Liza Neustaetter. "Empowering Faculty and Students with High Quality Modular Courseware." OLC Accelerate, 18 Nov. 2016, Walt Disney World Swan and Dolphin Resort, Orlando.

Formatting the Works Cited Section

Your Works Cited entries should be listed in alphabetical order. 

Each reference should be formatted with what is called a hanging indent. This means the first line of each citation should be flush with the left margin (i.e., not indented), but the rest of that citation should be indented a half an inch from the left margin. Any word-processing program will let you format this automatically so you don’t have to do it by hand. (In Microsoft Word, for example, you simply highlight your citations, click on the small arrow right next to the word "Paragraph" on the home tab, and in the popup box choose "hanging indent" under the "Special" section. Click OK, and you're done.)

Multiple Publications by the Same Author

If you are referencing multiple publications by the same author (or group of authors), there is a special rule for denoting this. You should first order those articles alphabetically by source title in the Works Cited section. Then, replace the author's name (or list of names) with three hyphens, followed by a period, for all but the first entry by that author:

Achenbach, Thomas M. "Bibliography of....

---. "School-Age...

Works Cited 

A properly formatted Works Cited page.

Attributions

MLA: Block Quotations

"Original figure by Liza Neustaetter. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Liza Neustaetter CC BY-SA 3.0.

MLA: In-Text Citations and Parentheticals

MLA: The Works Cited Section

"Original figure by Liza Neustaetter. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Liza Neustaetter CC BY-SA 3.0.

11: Writing a Paper in APA Style (Social Sciences)

11.1: Introduction to APA Style

11.1.1: When to Use APA Style

APA style, which is based on the American Psychological Association style manual, is widely used in many forms of academic writing.

Learning Objective

Recognize when to use APA style in writing

Key Points

APA style is one of the most common citation and formatting styles you will encounter in your academic career.

APA style is based on the style guide of the American Psychological Association (APA), officially titled the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.

APA style is not used only in the field of psychology; it is extremely common throughout the social and behavioral sciences.

APA style provides guidelines for grammar, formatting, and citing your sources.

Key Term

APA style

A common citation and formatting style, used especially often in the social and behavioral sciences.

APA style is one of the most common citation and formatting styles you will encounter in your academic career. Any piece of academic writing can use APA style, from a one-page paper to a full-length book. It is widely used by hundreds of scientific journals and many textbooks. If you are writing a paper for a psychology or sociology class, it is possible that your professor will ask you to write in APA style.

The APA Manual

APA style is based on the style guide of the American Psychological Association (APA), officially titled the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. But APA style is not used only in the field of psychology; in fact, it is extremely common throughout the social and behavioral sciences, and somewhat common in other scientific fields, such as medicine.

The most recent version of the APA manual is the sixth edition, second printing (which corrected errors found in the first printing), published in 2009. The sixth edition introduced guidelines for citing online sources and online-access journal articles.

The Purpose of APA Style

The APA style guide aims to accomplish several goals:​

to ensure consistent formatting and presentation of information, for the sake of clarity and ease of navigation;

to ensure proper attribution of ideas to their original sources, for the sake of intellectual integrity; and

to provide a clear structural scaffold for an experimental paper, for the sake of scientific rigor.​

Grammar and Formatting

APA style includes many basic grammatical rules. For example, APA style does use the Oxford comma, which some other citation styles (e.g., AP style) do not. Other examples include rules about what punctuation should be included inside a quotation and when to use what type of dash.

APA style also has rules about formatting, such as how to use different levels of headers throughout your paper and what size margins you should use.

Citations

APA style also puts forth guidelines for citing your sources—in fact, this is why it is called a "citation style." For example, APA style has specific rules for what information to include in your References section, how to cite quotations within a paragraph, and how to incorporate block quotations.

The Scientific Method

​APA style rules are not limited to grammar and formatting; in fact, it was originally developed as a set of guidelines for writing without bias in the sciences. The guidelines for reducing bias in language have been updated over the years and provide practical guidance for writing about race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation, and disability status.

APA style provides a roadmap for the structure of a scientific paper that closely mirrors the scientific method, with sections for the Introduction (including your hypothesis), Method, Results, and Discussion.

11.1.2: Overall Structure and Formatting of an APA Paper

Every paper written in APA style has the same basic structural elements. 

Learning Objective

Identify the structural elements of an APA paper

Key Points

An APA paper should include a title page, an abstract, a body, references, and in some cases, a table of contents and/or endnotes.

There are specific APA guidelines for font (12pt Times or Times New Roman), line spacing (double-spaced), margins (1 inch), indentation, and page numbering.

When writing an APA paper, be sure to use the Oxford comma, and only use one space following periods.

Listen to your professor's specific guidelines if they want you to use a table of contents.

Key Term

Oxford comma

The comma that comes after the second to last item in a list.

Overall Structure of an APA Paper

Your APA paper should include the following basic elements:

Title page

(In rare cases) Table of contents

Abstract

Body

References

(In rare cases) Endnotes

General Formatting Rules

Font

Your paper should be written in 12-point Times or Times New Roman font.

Line Spacing

All text in your paper should be double-spaced.

Margins

All page margins (top, bottom, left, and right) should be 1 inch (or greater, but 1 inch is standard). All text, with the exception of headers, should be left-justified.

Indentation

The first line of every paragraph and footnote should be indented 1 inch (with the exception of the first line of your Abstract, which should begin at the margin).

Page Numbers

Page numbers in Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3…) should appear right-justified in the header of every page, beginning with the number 1 on the title page. Most word-processing programs have the ability to automatically add the correct page number to each page so you don’t have to do this by hand.

General Grammar Rules

The Oxford Comma

The Oxford comma (also called the serial comma) is the comma that comes after the second-to-last item in a series or list. For example:

The UK includes the countries of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

In the above sentence, the comma immediately after "Wales" is the Oxford comma.

In general writing conventions, whether the Oxford comma should be used is actually a point of fervent debate among passionate grammarians. However, it's a requirement in APA style, so double-check all your lists and series to make sure you include it!

Capitalization After Colons and Em Dashes

If you have a colon or em dash (—) in the middle of a sentence, and what follows after is an independent clause (i.e., it could be a sentence on its own), the word after the colon or em dash should be capitalized (as though the following sentence were on its own). For example:

There was only one possible explanation: The train had never arrived.

Here, "The train had never arrived" could stand as its own sentence because it is an independent clause (i.e., it has both a subject—the train—and a verb phrase—had never arrived). Therefore, we capitalize its first word following the colon.

However, if we make one small change to this sentence, the rule changes:

There was only one possible person to blame: the train conductor.

Here, "the train conductor" cannot stand as its own sentence, so its first word following the colon is not capitalized.

Sentence Spacing

It used to be convention to type two spaces after every period—for example:

"Mary went to the store.  She bought some milk.  Then she went home."

This convention was developed when typewriters were in use; the space on a typewriter was quite small, so two spaces were needed to emphasize the end of a sentence. However, typewriters, and therefore this practice, are now obsolete—in fact, using two spaces after sentences is now generally frowned upon. APA style in particular includes an explicit rule to use only single spaces after periods:

"Mary went to the store. She bought some milk. Then she went home." 

A Note on the Table of Contents

Because APA style is so often used for journal articles, which appear as part of a larger body of work, it does not provide guidelines for tables of contents for the individual papers themselves. If your professor asks you to include a table of contents in your paper, they will give you their own guidelines for formatting.

Attributions

When to Use APA Style

"APA style." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_style. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

Overall Structure and Formatting of an APA Paper

"Colon (punctuation)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_(punctuation). Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"APA style." https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/APA_style. Wikiversity CC BY-SA 3.0.

"APA style." http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style. Psychology Wiki CC BY-SA 3.0.

11.2: APA: Structure and Formatting of Specific Elements

11.2.1: APA: Title Page and Running Head

APA papers have a title page and a "running head," or a line at the top of every page to identify the paper.

Learning Objective

Arrange the title page and running head correctly in an APA paper

Key Points

Your title page should be double-spaced, just like the rest of your paper. Center the information on the title page horizontally and vertically.

Your title page should include the title of your paper, your name, and the name of your school.

The running head is unique to APA style. It makes the paper identifiable without using the name of the author.

Key Term

running head

A header that does not contain the author's name, so that the paper can be evaluated without bias.

Title Page

Like the rest of your paper, your whole title page should be double-spaced. The following information should be centered horizontally and vertically on the title page:

on the first line, the full title of your paper

on the second line, your name

on the third line, the name of the institution you are affiliated with (e.g., the name of your school)

These elements should not be bolded, underlined, or italicized.

Running Head

The running head is an element unique to APA style. The purpose of the running head is to make the paper identifiable without using the name of the author; this style is commonly used in journal articles, since journals need to be able to evaluate a paper without bias toward the author.

Left-justified in the header (i.e., at the very top) of your title page, you should have the text “Running head:” followed by an abbreviated title of your paper in all caps. This is usually the first several words of your title and cannot exceed 50 characters in length (including spaces). The abbreviated title, still in all caps, should then appear at the same place—left-justified in the header—on every following page of your paper, but without the text “Running head:” preceding it (that should appear only on the title page).

Any word-processing program should allow you to edit the page header so that the same information appears on every page. You will have to change the options so that the first page is different, so you can include the text “Running head:” only on the title page. Your header and footer should appear 0.5 inches from the edge of the page—this is also an option you can change in your word-processing program.

Title page

This is an example of a title page properly formatted in APA style.

11.2.2: APA: Abstract

An APA abstract should summarize your entire paper and should be formatted according to the APA style guide.

Learning Objective

Arrange the abstract correctly in an APA paper

Key Points

Your abstract should appear by itself on page 2 of your paper; it should be no more than 250 words and should summarize your entire paper.

The entire abstract should be only one, non-indented paragraph.

Some abstracts must include keywords.

Key Term

abstract

A brief summary of a paper.

Your abstract should appear by itself on page 2 of your paper. Recall that the running head should now appear left-justified in the header on this page and on every page that follows. (Also recall that, starting on this page, the running head should be only your abbreviated title in all caps, without the words “Running head:" at the beginning.)

Content

Your abstract should be no more than 250 words and should summarize your entire paper, from literature review to discussion.

Formatting

This page should simply be titled “Abstract”; the title should be centered (and not bolded, underlined, or italicized) and should appear in the first line. The abstract itself should start on the following line.

The entire abstract should be only one paragraph, and it is the only paragraph in your paper that is not indented at the beginning—the entire paragraph should be left-justified along the margin.

Any number that appears in the abstract should be written as a numeral (e.g., 1.5, 300) rather than spelled out (e.g., one and a half, three hundred) unless it begins a sentence—then it should be spelled out (e.g., "Three hundred children ate 1.5 sandwiches each”).

Keywords (Optional)

APA style also includes guidelines for providing keywords under your abstract, but this is only required in some situations. If your professor doesn’t mention it, you probably don’t need to include them.

That said, if you do need to include keywords, they should appear on the line immediately after the last line of your abstract. Begin the list with the italicized word “Keywords:”. Then, include a list of 3–10 words or phrases relevant to your paper topic; separate them with commas, and do not end with a period. For example, if you’re writing about people’s experiences of anxiety in stressful situations, you might include the keywords “anxiety” and “stress."

Abstract

This is an example of an abstract properly formatted in APA style.

11.2.3: APA: Headings

In APA style, headings are used to organize your writing and give it a hierarchical organization.

Learning Objective

Order headings correctly in APA style

Key Points

In APA style, headings are used to organize your writing and give it a hierarchical organization. 

There can be up to five levels of headings in your paper. Some use title case, some use sentence case.

Key Terms

title case

A format in which the first letters of major words are capitalized.

sentence case

A format in which only the first major word (and any proper noun) is capitalized.

In APA style, headings are used to organize your writing and give it a hierarchical organization. This is especially important in papers that present experimental research because they follow the particularly rigid structure of the scientific method.

APA style puts forth specific rules for formatting headings (up to five levels) within your paper:

APA heading hierarchy

These are the formatting rules for different levels of headings in APA style.

If a heading is said to be in title case, that means you should format it as though it were the title of a book, with the first letters of most major words capitalized (e.g., A Study of Color-Blindness in Dogs).

If a heading is said to be in sentence case, that means you should format it as though it were a normal sentence, with only the first letter of the first word (and of any proper nouns) capitalized (e.g., A study of color-blindness in dogs).

You should always use heading levels in this order, beginning with Level 1. So, if you have a paper with two levels of headings, you would use Level 1 formatting for the higher level and Level 2 formatting for the lower level. Similarly, if you have a paper with five levels of headings, you would use Level 1 formatting for the highest level and Level 5 formatting for the lowest level.

Your headings should not begin with section numbers (e.g., your Methods section should be titled simply “Methods”, not “2. Introduction”).

The introduction of the paper should not be titled “Introduction”; instead, the paper should simply begin with the title of the entire paper. Note that the “Abstract” title and the overall paper title do not actually count as headings, so they are simply centered and in title case, but not bolded as Level 1 headings would be. This means that the first heading you use in your introduction will follow Level 1 formatting, because it is the first and so at the highest level.

11.2.4: APA: Series and Lists

In APA style, there are specific formats for series and lists.

Learning Objective

Distinguish between correctly formatted lists and series in APA style

Key Points

If you are including a simple, relatively short list of three to five elements, format it as a "series." 

If you have more than five elements, or your elements are complex or important, format it as a "list."

Use a bulleted list if the order of the atoms doesn't matter.

Use a numbered list if the order of the atoms does matter.

Key Terms

series

A simple, relatively short list of three to five items within a paragraph.

element

An item within a series or list.

Series

If you are including a simple, relatively short list of three to five items within a paragraph—also known as a series—the proper formatting is to: (a) precede the list with a comma, (b) label each item with a lowercase letter enclosed in parentheses, and (c) separate each item with commas or semicolons. The items within a series or a list are known as “elements."

As is standard in most style guides, use semicolons rather than commas to separate the elements of the series if at least one of the elements includes a comma somewhere within it (known as an “internal comma”). For example: “Josie was so hungry she ate: (a) the brownie; (b) the cupcake, wrapper and all; and (c) the bowl of ice cream.” Do not capitalize the first letter of each element (e.g., do not write: (a) The brownie; (b) The cupcake, wrapper and all; and (c) The bowl of ice cream.)

Lists

You will want to use a list rather than a series if any of the following is true:

you have more than five elements,

your elements are complex phrases or full sentences, or

the information is important enough to deserve being visually distinguished from the rest of the text of your paper.

Lists differ from series in that they appear separate from a paragraph rather than embedded within it. However, the same rules of capitalization and of using commas or semicolons to separate the elements apply.

Unlike a series, a list can include elements that are all full sentences, or even paragraphs. If this is the case, each element should end with a period, rather than a comma or semicolon, and should begin with a capital letter.

To better visually distinguish a list from the surrounding text, be sure to leave an extra (blank) line between the last line of the list and the first line of the following paragraph.

Bulleted Lists

You should use a bulleted list if the order of the items doesn’t matter. Each element of the list should start on a new line. The bullet points should be indented one inch from the left page margin, and the text of each element should be indented a further 0.5 inches from the bullet point itself.

Numbered Lists

If the order of your elements does matter—e.g., if you’re outlining a step-by-step process, a summary of how an event unfolded over time, or a series of items in order of importance—you will need to use a numbered list.

As with a bulleted list, each element should start on a new line. The first element should begin with the number 1, the second with the number 2, and so on. These numbers should be followed by periods, and the text of each element should be indented a further 0.5 inches from the beginning number.

11.2.5: APA: Block Quotations

In APA style, format quotations of more than 40 words as block quotations.

Learning Objective

Recognize when to use block quotations in APA style

Key Points

A typical quotation is part of a sentence within a paragraph in your paper; however, for longer quotations (more than 40 words), format the excerpt as a block quotation.

A block quotation begins on its own line, is not enclosed in quotation marks, and has its in-text citation after the final punctuation.

Block quotations are double-spaced, like the rest of your APA paper.

Key Term

block quotation

A way of formatting a particularly long excerpt or quotation in a paper.

When to Use a Block Quotation

A typical quotation is enclosed in double quotation marks and is part of a sentence within a paragraph of your paper. However, if you want to quote more than 40 words from a source, you should format the excerpt as a block quotation, rather than as a regular quotation within the text of a paragraph. Most of the standard rules for quotations still apply, with the following exceptions: a block quotation will begin on its own line, it will not be enclosed in quotation marks, and its in-text citation will come after the ending punctuation, not before it.

For example, if you wanted to quote the entire first paragraph of Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland, you would begin that quotation on its own line and format it as follows:

Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, 'and what is the use of a book,' thought Alice 'without pictures or conversations?’ (Carroll, p. 98)

The full reference for this source would then be included in your References section at the end of your paper.

Spacing and Alignment

The entire block quotation should be indented from the left margin the same distance as the first lines of your paragraphs (and the first line should not be further indented). As the rest of your paper, it should be double-spaced. And as with series and lists, to better visually distinguish a block quotation from the surrounding text, be sure to leave an extra (blank) line between the last line of the block quotation and the first line of the following paragraph.

Block quotation

This block quotation is properly formatted in APA style.

Attributions

APA: Title Page and Running Head

"Original figure by Catherine McCarthy. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Catherine McCarthy CC BY-SA 3.0.

APA: Abstract

"Original figure by Catherine McCarthy. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Catherine McCarthy CC BY-SA 3.0.

APA: Headings

"APA style." http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style. Psychology Wiki CC BY-SA 3.0.

"APA Headings." http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style%23Headings. Psychology Wikia CC BY-SA 3.0.

"APA Headings." http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style%23Headings. Psychology Wikia CC BY-SA 3.0.

APA: Series and Lists

APA: Block Quotations

"Original figure by Catherine McCarthy. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Catherine McCarthy CC BY-SA 3.0.

11.3: APA: Empirical Research Papers

11.3.1: APA: Reporting Statistics

Because papers using APA style often report experimental data, you must be able to discuss statistics in your paper. 

Learning Objective

Identify correctly formatted statistics according to APA style

Key Points

Since experimental papers in the social sciences are usually written in APA style, you will need to know how to properly talk about statistics in the text of your paper.

Never never report a statistic in the text of your paper that is already evident in a table or figure, or report a statistic in a table which is reported in your text.

Always italicize statistical variables.

Summarize important statistical relationships in clear, plain English.

Key Term

statistic

A numerical figure from experimental data.

Since experimental papers in the social sciences are usually written in APA style, you will need to know how to properly talk about statistics in the text of your paper.

General Rules

You should never mention a statistic in the text of your paper that is already evident in a table or figure, and vice versa.

Be sure to italicize statistical variables (e.g., p-value; t-test, F-test).

Clarity

To place the focus on the meaning of your statistical tests and their relevance to your overall argument, you should summarize each statistical relationship in clear, plain English. Also, include the important values in parentheses, and the test information and significance at the end of the sentence. For example, rather than writing this:

The mean anxiety score for women was 43.5, and the mean anxiety score for men was 47.9. This difference was significant; a t-test found a t-score of 2.34, and the p-value was 0.01.

You should write this:

In terms of their scores on the Anxiety Scale, women were found to be significantly more anxious than men , 

(  stands for "mean"—meaning average—and stands for "standard deviation.")

Reporting statistics

This figure shows the proper way to report statistics in an APA-style paper.

11.3.2: APA: Tables and Figures

APA style has specific rules for formatting tables and figures.

Learning Objective

Arrange tables and figures in APA style

Key Points

APA specifies two methods for presenting information visually: tables and figures.

A table is a chart that presents numerical information in a grid format.

A figure, by the APA definition, is generally a graph or visual representation of a process; in rare cases it can also be a photograph.

Using a table or a figure as a visual aid can help you strengthen a claim you're making.

When you need to summarize quantitative data, words can only go so far. Sometimes, using a chart, graph, or other visual representation can be useful in proving your point. However, it's important to make sure you incorporate this extra information in a way that is easy to understand and in line with the conventions of APA style.

APA specifies two methods for representing information visually: tables and figures.

Tables

A table is a chart that presents numerical information in a grid format. APA style recommends that a table be used only for particularly complex data or large data sets; if your table has only one or two columns, you should summarize the information within the text of a paragraph instead.

In APA style, you must include each table on its own separate page at the very end of your paper, after the References section. (Note that these pages should still include the running head and page number.) Because tables are in a separate section, you must refer to each one in the text of your paper by its number (e.g., "Table 1") so the reader knows where it is relevant.

Formatting

Format your tables as simply as possible. Do not use bold or italicized text (unless you are talking about a variable or statistical test that requires such formatting).

APA style has strict rules about how to format the borders, or the lines, of your table. Generally, for simpler tables, you should have only three horizontal lines: one immediately above and one immediately below the column headings, and one at the bottom of the table.

Simple table

This table is properly formatted in APA style, using only three horizontal borders.

If you have a more complex table—e.g., one that has multiple layers of column headers or sections of data—you may sparingly use additional horizontal lines as visual separators.

Complicated table

This more complicated table is properly formatted in APA style; it uses more than three horizontal borders to clearly separate the different sections.

Title and Source

Every table should appear flush with the left margin. Immediately above the table, provide its number (e.g., "Table 1"), and then on the next line provide a short but descriptive title in italicized title case.

If your table includes any abbreviations that need defining, or statistics whose significance levels need noting, immediately below the table, write the word "Note" in italics, followed by a colon, and then provide the needed explanation.

If your table comes from another source, you need to add that source to your References section. Using the same formatting, you should also place that information immediately below your table, following the word "Source" in italics.

Figures

In APA style, you must also include each figure on its own separate page at the end of your paper; this section of figures should appear after the section of tables. (Note that these pages should also still include the running head and page number.)

Because figures appear separate from the body of your paper, you must refer to each one in the text of your paper by its number (e.g., "Figure 1") so the reader knows where it is relevant.

Formatting

APA style has strict rules about how to create and format your figures.

Any text in a figure (e.g., axis labels, legend labels) should be in a sans-serif font, between 8pt and 14pt in size.

One-column figures (e.g., a graph with a single panel) should be between 2 and 3.25 inches in width.

Two-column figures (e.g., a graph with two panels) should be between 4.25 and 6.875 inches in width.

Single-panel figure

This is a single-panel figure properly formatted in APA style.

Title and Caption

Every figure should appear flush with the left margin. Immediately below the figure, provide its number (e.g., "Figure 1") in italics, followed by a period, followed by a brief but descriptive title (called a "figure caption") in sentence case. For example:

Figure 1. Average self-reported anxiety of 18- to 24-year-old women in response to perceived social slight.

If your figure includes any abbreviations that need defining, or statistics whose significance levels need noting, include this information in the figure caption. For example:

Figure 1. Average self-reported anxiety of 18- to 24-year-old women in response to perceived social slight. 

The title of the figure should not appear in the figure itself—it should appear only in the caption beneath the figure.

Three-panel figure

This is a three-panel figure properly formatted in APA style.

Attributions

APA: Reporting Statistics

"Original figure by Catherine McCarthy. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Catherine McCarthy CC BY-SA 3.0.

APA: Tables and Figures

"Original figure by Catherine McCarthy. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Catherine McCarthy CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Original figure by Catherine McCarthy. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Catherine McCarthy CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Original figure by Catherine McCarthy. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Catherine McCarthy CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Original figure by Catherine McCarthy. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Catherine McCarthy CC BY-SA 3.0.

11.4: APA: Citations and References

11.4.1: APA: The References Section

In APA style, the sources you cite in your paper are listed all together at the end, in the References section.

Learning Objective

Arrange the References section in APA style

Key Points

In APA style, all the sources you cite throughout the text of your paper are listed together in the References section.

The References section has its own special formatting rules, including double-spaced text and hanging indentation.

How you should format each individual citation differs differs slightly based on source type; there are different citation styles for books, online resources, journals, and many others.

Key Term

hanging indent

A formatting style for citations in APA Reference pages in which every line except the first is an inch away from the left margin.

In APA style, all the sources you cite throughout the text of your paper are listed together, and more fully, in the References section, which comes after the main text of your paper.

Formatting the References Section

The top of the page, as the rest of your paper, should still include the running header on the left and the page number on the right. On the first line, the title of the page—“References”—should appear centered and not italicized or bolded. (As is the case with the “Abstract” page title, this does not count as an actual heading, so it is not formatted per the heading guidelines.) And, like the rest of your paper, this page should also be double-spaced.

Starting on the next line after the page title, your references should be listed in alphabetical order by author. Multiple sources by the same author should be listed chronologically by year within the same group.

Each reference should be formatted with what is called a hanging indent. This means the first line of each reference should be flush with the left margin (i.e., not indented), but the rest of that reference should be indented one inch from the left margin. Any word-processing program will let you format this automatically so you don’t have to do it by hand. (In Microsoft Word, for example, you simply highlight your citations, click on the small arrow right next to the word "Paragraph" on the home tab, and in the popup box choose "hanging indent" under the "Special" section. Click OK, and you're done.)

References

This is an example of the first page of a References section properly formatted in APA style.

Constructing a Citation

The first step in building each individual citation is to determine the type of resource you are citing, since in each citation style formatting differs slightly based on source type. Some common types are a book, a chapter from a book, a journal article, an online book or article, an online video, a blog post, and personal communication such as an email or an interview you conducted. (You'll notice that "website" is not a category by itself. If the information you found is online, you want to determine if you're looking at an online book, an online article, or some other type of document.)

As an example, let's look in detail at the process of citing three particular sources in APA style: Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness (i.e., a book by one author), Project Gutenberg's online text of the same book (i.e., an online book), and an online journal article about the book.

Print Sources

Author Name

You always want to start with the author information. You should present the author information in the following order and format: the author's last name (capitalized), a comma, the author's first initial, then a period, and finally their middle initial and period (if given):

Conrad, J.

Date of Publication

After the author's name, you provide the year, inside parentheses, in which the source was published, followed by a period. It may look odd, but make sure your period is outside the parentheses.

(1993).

Title of Source

Next, you should include the title of the source in sentence case. For a book, the title is italicized.

Heart of darkness.

City of Publication

Next, you want to provide the location of the publisher's office. The location is generally a city, such as "London" or "New York, NY."

London:

Publisher Name

Next, provide the publisher's name, followed by a period:

Everyman's Library.

All together, then, the citation looks like this:

Conrad, J. (1993). Heart of darkness. London: Everyman's Library.

Online Sources

Now let's take a look at the citation for the online version of the same book, available online through Project Gutenberg (gutenberg.org). Much of the citation is the same:

Conrad, J. (2006). Heart of darkness. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/219/219-h/219-h.htm

Journal Articles and Multiple Authors

NooriBerzenji, L. S., & Abdi, M. (2013). The image of the Africans in Heart of Darkness and Things Fall Apart. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 5(4), 710–726.

Much of this citation will look familiar to you now that you know the basics. Again, we start with the author information. This article has multiple authors, so we list them in the same order in which they are listed in the source, and in the same format as before (last name, first initial, middle initial), separated by commas. The last author should also have an "and" sign, or ampersand (&), before it. Here we have only two authors, but if we had five, the ampersand would come before the fifth author's last name, after the comma following the fourth author's name.

The date of publication and title are formatted the same. Note that even though APA style says that the article title should not be italicized, the book titles “Heart of Darkness” and “Things Fall Apart” within the article title are still italicized.

The new information here begins with citing the journal this article is from. Include the title of the journal in italicized title case (all major words capitalized, as in the title of a book), followed by a comma:

Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business,

Then include the journal volume, also italicized:

5

If the particular journal you're citing lists an issue number in addition to the volume number, as this one does, include it in parentheses immediately after the volume, and do not italicize it. Then follow it with a comma.

5(4),

Finally, list the page numbers of the article, followed by a period [note that the dash between the first and second numbers is an en-dash (–), not a hyphen (-) or em-dash (—)]:

710–726.

Multiple Publications by the Same Author in the Same Year

If you are referencing multiple publications by the same author (or group of authors) that were published in the same year, there is a special rule for denoting this. You should first order those articles alphabetically by source title in the References section. Then, append a lowercase letter in alphabetical order to the end of each year of publication:

Achenbach, T. M. (2012a). Bibliography of published studies using the ASEBA. Retrieved March 25, 2012, from Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment: http://www.aseba.org/asebabib.html

Achenbach, T. M. (2012b). School-age (ages 6–18) assessments. Retrieved March 18, 2012, from Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment: http://www.aseba.org/schoolage.html

A Note on Capitalization

In the guidelines for citing different types of sources in APA style, you will notice several different patterns in capitalizing source titles. A work that stands on its own—a book, a painting, a film, etc.—should be written in italicized title case (every major word capitalized). A source that is part of a larger work—a chapter in an anthology, an article in a journal, a web page, etc.—should be written in sentence case and not italicized. (Recall that sentence means that just the first word and proper nouns are capitalized, as well as the first word after a colon, if there are any). As an example, compare the citations of Heart of Darkness and the NooriBerzenji & Abdi (2013) article.

11.4.2: APA: How to Reference Different Types of Sources

In APA style, there are different formats for citing sources at the end of your paper depending on the type of source.

Learning Objective

List the ways to cite different source types in APA style

Key Points

In your References section, you will have to create a citation for every source you used in your paper; these citations will be formatted differently depending on the source type.

There are different citation styles for books, depending on how many authors they have.

There are different citation styles for articles, depending on where you found them.

There are ways to format sources that are not books or articles.

Key Term

ellipsis

A punctuation mark consisting of three periods in a row, used to indicate an omission, a pause, or additional, unmentioned list items.

Now that you know the different components of a book citation in APA style and how they should be formatted, you will be able to understand the citation formats for other source types. Here are some example citations for the most common types of resources you will use.

Book by One Author

Sherman, R. D. (1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego: Halstead.

Book by Multiple Authors

Two Authors

Kurosawa, J., & Armistead, Q. (1972). Hairball: An intensive peek behind the surface of an enigma. Hamilton, ON: McMaster University Press.

Three to Seven Authors

Brown, T. E., LeMay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C., & Woodward, P. (2011). Chemistry: The central science. London: Prentice Hall.

More than Seven Authors

List the first six authors, then an ellipsis, then the final author.

Hughes-Hallett, D., Gleason, A. M., McCallum, W. G., Lomen, D. O., Lovelock, D., Tecosky-Feldman, J., ... Lock, P. F. (2008). Calculus: Single variable. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Article in an Edited Book

Stanz, R. F. (1983). Practical methods for the apprehension and sustained containment of supernatural entities. In G. L. Yeager (Ed.), Paranormal and occult studies: Case studies in application (pp. 42–64). London, England: OtherWorld Books.

Article in a Journal with Continuous Pagination

Rottweiler, F. T., & Beauchemin, J. L. (1987). Detroit and Sarnia: Two foes on the brink of destruction. Canadian/American Studies Journal, 54. 66–146.

Article in a Journal Paginated Separately

Crackton, P. (1987). The Loonie: God's long-awaited gift to colourful pocket change? Canadian Change, 64(7), 34–37.

Article in an Internet-Only Journal

Blofeld, H. V. (1994, March 1). Expressing oneself through Persian cats and modern architecture. Felines & Felons, 4, Article 0046g. Retrieved October 3, 1999, from http://journals.f+f.org/spectre/vblofeld-0046g.html

Page on a Web Site

Pavlenko, A. (2015, October 7). Bilingual minds, bilingual bodies. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies

Page on a Web Site, No Author Identified, No Date

Bilingual minds, bilingual bodies. (n.d.). Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies

11.4.3: APA: In-Text Citations and Parentheticals

In APA style, there are different formats for citing sources in text depending on the type of source.

Learning Objective

Arrange in-text citations in APA style

Key Points

In-text citations are where you tell the reader, within the text of your paper, the author’s name and the date the source was published.

The correct formatting for an in-text citation varies depending on how many authors created the work being cited.

Formatting also varies depending on whether you cite the same source more than once, or whether you cite multiple works by the same author.

Key Term

in-text citation

Giving the name and year or other identifying information of the author of a source within the text of a paper.

In your paper, when you quote directly from a source in their words, or when you paraphrase someone else’s idea, you need to tell the reader what that source is so the author gets credit for their words and ideas. When you tell the reader the author’s name and the date the source was published in the text of your paper, this is called an in-text citation.

In-text citations

These in-text citations are properly formatted in APA style.

Source by a Single Author

To cite this type of reference in the text, you should use what is known as a parenthetical—the citation information enclosed in parentheses—at the end of the relevant sentence. The parenthetical should include the author’s last name (with no first or middle initial), followed by a comma, followed by the year the source was published. If you’re citing a direct quote, you also need to include the page number. For example:

Social representations theory posits that reified scientific knowledge that exists at the boundaries of a given society will be interpreted in meaningful and often simplified forms by the majority (Pauling, 2005).

Social representations theory “proposes a new hypothesis …” (Pauling, 2005, p. 113).

If you choose, you can integrate the author’s name into the sentence itself—this is known as a "signal phrase"—and provide just the year in parentheses:

Pauling (2005) posits that ...

Source by Two Authors

Authors should be presented in the order in which they are listed on the published article. If you include the authors’ names in the parenthetical, use an ampersand (&) between the two names. For example:

Social representations theory posits that reified scientific knowledge that exists at the boundaries of a given society will be interpreted in meaningful and often simplified forms by the majority (Pauling & Liu, 2005).

If you choose to use a signal phrase instead, use the word “and” rather than an ampersand:

Pauling and Liu (2005) posit that ...

Source by Three to Five Authors

For an article with three to five authors, the first time you cite the article in the text of your paper, you should include the names of all the authors (in the same order in which they appear in the article) followed by the year of publication. After that, to save space and to make your paper easier to read, you should use only the first author’s name followed by “et al.” and the year of publication. (“Et al.” is short for “et alia,” which means “and other people” in Latin—much like “etc.” is short for “et cetera,” which means “and other things” in Latin.)

First Instance

Social representations theory posits that reified scientific knowledge that exists at the boundaries of a given society will be interpreted in meaningful and often simplified forms by the majority (Pauling, Liu, & Guo, 2005).

Using a signal phrase:

Pauling, Liu, and Guo (2005) posit ...

Subsequent Instances in the Same Document

(Pauling et al., 2005)

Using a signal phrase:

Pauling, et al. (2005) posit ...

Source by More than Five Authors

For an article with more than five authors, include only the first author's name followed by “et al.” and the year of publication in each in-text citation.

(Hughes-Hallett et al., 2008)

Using a signal phrase:

Hughes-Hallett et al. (2008) claim that ...

Multiple Publications by Different Authors

If you need to cite multiple publications by different authors in the same sentence, you should list the multiple sources in alphabetical order by author and use a semicolon to separate them.

... majority (Alford, 1995; Pauling, 2004; Sirkis, 2003).

If within this citation you also have multiple sources by the same author, after that author’s name separate the multiple dates of publication with a semicolon and order them chronologically (earliest to latest).

... majority (Alford, 1995; Pauling, 2004; 2005; Sirkis, 2003).

Multiple Publications by the Same Author

If an author has multiple publications which you wish to cite in the same sentence, you use a semi colon (;) to separate the years of publication in chronological order (oldest to most recent).

... majority (Pauling, 2004; 2005).

Using a signal phrase:

Pauling (2004; 2005) suggests that ...

Multiple Publications by the Same Author/s in the Same Year

If multiple publications by the same author (or group of authors) were published in the same year, there is a special rule for denoting this. In the References section, you would order those articles alphabetically by source title, and then append a lowercase letter in alphabetical order to the end of the year of publication. For example, if you had two publications by Pauling in 2004, the first would be marked as (2004a) and the second as (2004b). You would then include these lowercase letters in your in-text citations as well:

... majority (Pauling, 2004a; 2004b).

Attributions

APA: The References Section

"APA style." http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style. Psychology Wiki CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Basics of Citing, APA, 2 of 3 (References)." https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k3zz7VOpuQM. Youtube CC BY.

"Original figure by Catherine McCarthy. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Catherine McCarthy CC BY-SA 3.0.

APA: How to Reference Different Types of Sources

"How to reference and link to summary or text." http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/How_to_reference_and_link_to_summary_or_text. Psychology Wiki CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Basics of Citing, APA, 2 of 3 (References)." https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k3zz7VOpuQM. Youtube CC BY.

APA: In-Text Citations and Parentheticals

"APA style." http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style. Psychology Wiki CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Original figure by Catherine McCarthy. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Catherine McCarthy CC BY-SA 3.0.

12: Writing a Paper in Chicago/Turabian Style (History)

12.1: Introduction to Chicago/Turabian Style

12.1.1: When to Use Chicago/Turabian Style

Chicago style, created by the University of Chicago, is the primary citation style used for papers in history.

Learning Objective

Recognize when to use Chicago/Turabian style in writing

Key Points

Chicago style is one of the most common citation and formatting styles you will encounter in your academic career.

Chicago style is based on The Chicago Manual of Style.

Turabian style is based on Kate L. Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, which is very similar to Chicago style but with an emphasis on student writing.

Chicago style provides guidelines for grammar, formatting, and citing your sources.

There are two subsets of Chicago/Turabian style which cite their research sources differently: Author–Date and Notes and Bibliography.

Chicago style is a citation and formatting style you may encounter in your academic career. Any piece of academic writing can use Chicago style, from a one-page paper to a full-length book. It is used by most historical journals and some social science publications. If you are writing a paper for a history class, it is likely your professor will ask you to write in Chicago style.

The Chicago Manual

The Chicago Manual of Style (abbreviated in writing as Chicago style, CMS, or CMOS) is a style guide for American English published since 1906 by the University of Chicago Press. Its sixteen editions have specified writing and citation styles widely used in publishing, particularly in the book industry (as opposed to newspaper publishing, where AP style is more common). Chicago style deals with many aspects of editorial practice. It remains the basis for the Style Guide of the American Anthropological Association and the Style Sheet for the Organization of American Historians. Many small publishers throughout the world adopt it as their style.

The Turabian Manual

"Turabian style" is named after the book's original author, Kate L. Turabian, who developed it for the University of Chicago. Except for a few minor differences, Turabian style is the same as Chicago style. However, while Chicago style focuses on providing guidelines for publishing in general, Turabian's Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations focuses on providing guidelines for student papers, theses, and dissertations.

The Purpose of Chicago/Turabian Style

Chicago/Turabian style offers writers a choice of several different formats, because it is used in a wide variety of academic disciplines. It allows the mixing of formats, provided that the result is clear and consistent. 

The most recent edition of The Chicago Manual of Style permits the use of both in-text citation systems ("Author–Date" style, which is usually used in the social sciences) or footnotes and endnotes (this is called "Notes and bibliography" style, which is usually used in the humanities).

Grammar and Formatting

Chicago style includes many basic grammatical rules. For example, Chicago style does use the Oxford comma, which some other citation styles (e.g., AP style) do not. Other examples include rules about what punctuation should be included inside a quotation and when to use what type of dash. For instance, Author–Date citations are usually placed just inside a mark of punctuation.

Citations

As mentioned above, the most recent editions of The Chicago Manual of Style permit the use of either in-text citation systems or footnotes and endnotes. It can give information about in-text citation by page number or by year of publication; it even provides for variations in styles of footnotes and endnotes, depending on whether the paper includes a full bibliography at the end.

12.1.2: Overall Structure and Formatting of a Chicago/Turabian Paper

Every paper written in Chicago/Turabian style has the same basic structural elements.

Learning Objective

Identify the structural elements of a Chicago/Turabian paper

Key Points

A Chicago/Turabian-style paper should include a title page, a body, a references section, and, in some cases, endnotes.

Chicago/Turabian style provides specific guidelines for line spacing (your paper should be double-spaced), margins (1–1.5 inches), and page numbering.

Use the Oxford comma, and only use one space following periods.

Listen to your professor's specific guidelines if they want you to use a table of contents.

Key Term

footnote

A short piece of text, often numbered, placed at the bottom of a printed page to add a comment, citation, or reference to a designated part of the main text.

Overall Structure of a Chicago Paper

Your Chicago paper should include the following basic elements:

Title page

Body

References (if using the Author–Date method)

Bibliography (if using the notes and bibliography method)

General Formatting Rules

Typeface

Your paper should be written in a legible font such as Times New Roman, and should be at least 10-pt in size (12-pt is recommended).

Line Spacing

All text in your paper should be double-spaced except for block quotations and image captions. On your citations page, each citation should be single-spaced, but there should be a blank line between each citation.

Margins

All page margins (top, bottom, left, and right) should be at least 1 inch and no more than 1.5 inches. All text, with the exception of headers, should be left-justified.

Indentation

The first line of every paragraph and footnote should be indented 0.5 inches.

Page Numbers

Page numbers in Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3…) should appear right-justified in the header of every page, beginning with the number 1 on the first page of text. Most word-processing programs have the ability to automatically add the correct page number to each page so you don’t have to do this by hand.

General Grammar Rules

The Oxford Comma

The Oxford comma (also called the serial comma) is the comma that comes after the second-to-last item in a series or list. For example:

The UK includes the countries of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

In the above sentence, the comma immediately after "Wales" is the Oxford comma.

In general writing conventions, whether the Oxford comma should be used is actually a point of fervent debate among passionate grammarians. However, it's a requirement in Chicago style, so double-check all your lists and series to make sure you include it!

Capitalization After Colons

In most cases, the first word after a colon should not be capitalized:

I know exactly what happened: he stole the cookies.

However, if what follows a colon is a series of multiple sentences, or a quotation, you do need to capitalize the first word after the colon:

If you have a colon in the middle of a sentence, and what follows after is a quotation or multiple sentences, the first word after the colon should be capitalized. For example:

I know exactly what happened: He stole the cookies. She snatched the cupcakes. You took the brownies.

Sentence Spacing

It used to be convention to type two spaces after every period—for example:

"Mary went to the store.  She bought some milk.  Then she went home."

This convention was developed when typewriters were in use; the space on a typewriter was quite small, so two spaces were needed to emphasize the end of a sentence. However, typewriters, and therefore this practice, are now obsolete—in fact, using two spaces after sentences is now generally frowned upon. Chicago style in particular includes an explicit rule to use only single spaces after periods:

"Mary went to the store. She bought some milk. Then she went home." 

A Note on the Table of Contents

Chicago style does not provide guidelines for tables of contents for individual papers themselves. If your professor asks you to include a table of contents in your paper, they will give you their own guidelines for formatting.

Attributions

When to Use Chicago/Turabian Style

"The Chicago Manual of Style." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chicago_Manual_of_Style. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.

Overall Structure and Formatting of a Chicago/Turabian Paper

"footnote." https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/footnote. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

12.2: Chicago/Turabian: Structure and Formatting of Specific Elements

12.2.1: Chicago/Turabian: Title Page

A paper in Chicago/Turabian style has a title page that follows specific formatting rules.

Learning Objective

Arrange the title page correctly in a Chicago-style paper

Key Points

Your title page should include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your course, and the date the paper is due.

All the information on your title page should be centered horizontally.

The title of your paper should be written in all capital letters.

Key Term

dissertation

A formal research paper that students write in order to complete the requirements for a doctoral degree.

Title Page

The following information should be centered horizontally on the title page:

a third of the way down the page, the title of your paper in all capital letters;

on the next line, the subtitle of your paper (if you have one);

two-thirds of the way down the page, your name;

on the next line, the name of your course; and

on the next line, the due date of the paper.

These elements should not be bolded, underlined, or italicized. Note that the requirements may be different for doctoral theses or dissertations.

Chicago-style title page

A title page introduces the title of your paper—and you, its author!

12.2.2: Chicago/Turabian: Headings

In Chicago style, headings are used to organize your writing and give it a hierarchical organization.

Learning Objective

Order headings correctly in Chicago/Turabian style

Key Points

In Chicago style, headings are used to organize your writing and give it a hierarchical organization. 

There can be up to five levels of headings in your paper. Some use title case; some use sentence case.

Key Term

hierarchical

Arranged according to importance.

In Chicago style, headings are used to organize your writing and give it a hierarchical organization. Chicago style puts forth specific rules for formatting headings (up to five levels) within your paper:

Chicago heading hierarchy

These are the formatting rules for different levels of headings in APA style.

If a heading is said to be in title case, that means you should format it as though it were the title of a book, with the first letters of most major words capitalized (e.g., A Study of Color-Blindness in Dogs).

If a heading is said to be in sentence case, that means you should format it as though it were a normal sentence, with only the first letter of the first word (and of any proper nouns) capitalized (e.g., A study of color-blindness in dogs).

You should always use heading levels in this order, beginning with Level 1. So, if you have a paper with two levels of headings, you would use Level 1 formatting for the higher level and Level 2 formatting for the lower level. Similarly, if you have a paper with five levels of headings, you would use Level 1 formatting for the highest level and Level 5 formatting for the lowest level.

12.2.3: Chicago/Turabian: Block Quotations

In Chicago style, format quotations of more than five lines as block quotations.

Learning Objective

Recognize when to use block quotations in Chicago/Turabian

Key Points

A typical quotation is part of a sentence within a paragraph in your paper; however, for longer quotations (more than five lines), format the excerpt as a block quotation.

A block quotation begins on its own line, is not enclosed in quotation marks, and has its in-text citation after the final punctuation.

Block quotations are not double-spaced, unlike the rest of your Chicago style paper.

When to Use a Block Quotation

A typical quotation is enclosed in double quotation marks and is part of a sentence within a paragraph of your paper. However, if a quotation takes up more than five lines in your paper, you should format it as a block quotation rather than as a regular quotation within the text of a paragraph. Most of the standard rules for quotations still apply, with the following exceptions: a block quotation will begin on its own line (skip a line before and after the block quotation), it will not be enclosed in quotation marks, and its in-text citation will come after the ending punctuation, not before it.

For example, if you wanted to quote the first two sentences of Thomas Paine's "Common Sense", you would begin that quotation on its own line, indent every line, and format it as follows:

Perhaps the sentiments contained in the following pages, are not YET sufficiently fashionable to procure them general favour; a long habit of not thinking a thing wrong, gives it a superficial appearance of being right, and raises at first a formidable outcry in defense of custom. But the tumult soon subsides. (Paine)

The full reference for this source would then be included in your References section at the end of your paper.

Spacing and Alignment

Each line of the block quotation should be indented from the left margin the same distance as the first lines of your regular body paragraphs. Unlike the rest of your paper, it should be single-spaced. And as with series and lists, to better visually distinguish a block quotation from the surrounding text, be sure to leave an extra (blank) line between the last line of the block quotation and the first line of the following paragraph.

Block quotations

This block quotation is correctly formatted according to Chicago/Turabian style.

12.2.4: Chicago/Turabian: Tables and Figures

Chicago/Turabian style has specific rules for formatting tables and figures.

Learning Objective

Arrange tables and figures in Chicago style

Key Points

Chicago/Turabian specifies two methods for presenting information visually: tables and figures.

A table is a chart that presents numerical information in a grid format.

A figure, by the Chicago/Turabian definition, is any visual that is not a table.

Using a table or a figure as a visual aid can help you strengthen a claim you're making.

When you need to summarize quantitative data, words can only go so far. Sometimes, using a chart, graph, or other visual representation can be useful in proving your point. However, it's important to make sure you incorporate this extra information in a way that is easy to understand and in line with the conventions set forth in Chicago/Turabian style.

Chicago/Turabian specifies two methods for representing information visually: tables and figures.

Tables

A table is a chart that presents numerical information in a grid format. In Chicago/Turabian style, you must present a table immediately following the paragraph in which you mentioned it. When you mention a table in the text of your paper, make sure you refer to it by its number (e.g., "Table 1") rather than with a phrase like "the table below" or "this table."

Formatting

Format your tables as simply as possible. Do not use bold or italicized text, and do not overuse borders. Generally, you should have only three horizontal lines in your table: one immediately above and one immediately below the column headings, and one at the bottom of the table, to help separate it from the surrounding text. However, Chicago style does allow two exceptions: you may use an additional horizontal line if (1) you need to separate added numbers from their total, or (2) if you have multiple levels of column headings within a table.

Title and Source

Every table should appear flush with the left margin. Immediately above the table, provide its number, followed by a colon, followed by a short but descriptive title:

Table 1: Frog populations in the Willamette River from 2009-2014

Immediately below the table, write the word "Source" (or or "Sources") in italics, followed by a colon, and then provide the source(s) of the information in the table. Include the same information, with the same formatting, as in a parenthetical citation—i.e., the author's last name and the page number. End this line with a period:

Source: Rottweiler 67.

Be sure to also include the full citation for this source in your References or Bibliography section. Neither the title nor the source line should be double-spaced.

Sample table

This table is formatted correctly according to Chicago/Turabian formatting rules.

Figures

Treat a figure much as you would treat a table, with two exceptions: (1) you should present a figure immediately after you have referenced it in the text, and (2) all information about the figure, including its number ("Figure 1") and title ("Frogs in the Willamette River, 2012") should appear on the line immediately below the figure. The source information should appear on the next line.

Sample figure

This figure is formatted correctly according to Chicago/Turabian formatting rules.

Attributions

Chicago/Turabian: Title Page

"dissertation." https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dissertation. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Original figure by Eva Petzinger. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Eva Petzinger CC BY-SA 3.0.

Chicago/Turabian: Headings

"Original figure by Eva Petzinger. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Eva Petzinger CC BY-SA 3.0.

Chicago/Turabian: Block Quotations

"Common Sense by Thomas Paine." http://www.ushistory.org/paine/commonsense/singlehtml.htm. USHistory.org Public domain.

"Original figure by Eva Petzinger. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Eva Petzinger CC BY-SA 3.0.

Chicago/Turabian: Tables and Figures

"Original figure by Eva Petzinger. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Eva Petzinger CC BY-SA 3.0.

"Original figure by Eva Petzinger. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Eva Petzinger CC BY-SA 3.0.

12.3: Chicago/Turabian: Citations and References – Notes and Bibliography (NB) System

12.3.1: Chicago/Turabian (NB): The Bibliography Section

In Chicago NB style, the sources you cite in your paper are listed at the end in the bibliography.

Learning Objective

Arrange the bibliography in a Chicago/Turabian NB paper

Key Points

In Chicago/Turabian style, there are two approaches to formatting your citations: the Author Date system or the Notes and Bibliography (NB) system.

If you are using NB, you will need a bibliography at the end of your paper, in which all the sources you cite throughout the text of your paper are listed together.

The bibliography has its own special formatting rules, including hanging indentation.

In each citation style, formatting differs slightly based on source type; for example, you would format a citation differently if your source was an online book vs. a physical textbook.

There are different citation styles for types of sources, including books, online resources, journals, and many others.

In Chicago/Turabian papers using the Notes and Bibliography (NB) citation system, all the sources you cite throughout the text of your paper are listed together and in full in the bibliography, which comes after the main text of your paper. (If you are using the Author Date citation system, this will be called the References section.)

Formatting the Bibliography

The top of the bibliography page, as the rest of your paper, should still include the page number in the right header. On the first line, the title of the page—“Bibliography”—should appear centered and not italicized or bolded. After the page title, leave two blank lines before your first citation.

Unlike the rest of your paper, this page should not be double-spaced: leave a blank line between each citation, but the citations themselves should not be double-spaced. Your citations should be in alphabetical order by the first word in each citation (usually the author's last name).

Each citation should be formatted with what is called a hanging indent. This means the first line of each reference should be flush with the left margin (i.e., not indented), but the rest of that reference should be indented one inch from the left margin. Any word-processing program will let you format this automatically so you don’t have to do it by hand. (In Microsoft Word, for example, you simply highlight your citations, click on the small arrow right next to the word "Paragraph" on the home tab, and in the popup box choose "hanging indent" under the "Special" section. Click OK, and you're done.)

Bibliography

This is an example of a correctly formatted bibliography in Chicago/Turabian NB style.

Constructing a Citation

The first step in building each individual citation is to determine the type of resource you are citing, since in each citation style formatting differs slightly based on source type. Some common types are a book, a chapter from a book, a journal article, an online book or article, an online video, a blog post, and personal communication such as an email or an interview you conducted. (You'll notice that "website" is not a category by itself. If the information you found is online, you want to determine if you're looking at an online book, an online article, or some other type of document.) The most important information to have for citing a source will always be the author names, the title, and the publisher information and year of publication.

As an example, let's look in detail at the process of citing three particular sources in Chicago style: Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness (i.e., a book by one author), Project Gutenberg's online text of the same book (i.e., an online book), and an online journal article about the book.

Print Sources

Author Name

You always want to start with the author information. You should present the author information in the following order and format: the author's last name (capitalized), a comma, the author's first name (capitalized), the author's middle initial (if given), and then a period:

Conrad, Joseph.

Title of Source

Next, you should include the title of the source in title case. For a book or other standalone source, the title is italicized; otherwise it should be enclosed in quotation marks.

Heart of Darkness.

City of Publication

Next, you want to provide the location of the publisher's office. The location is generally a city, such as "London" or "New York, NY."

London:

Publisher Name

Next, provide the publisher's name, followed by a comma:

Everyman's Library,

Date of Publication

After the publisher information, you provide the year in which the source was published, followed by a period.

1993.

All together, then, the citation looks like this:

Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. London: Everyman's Library, 1993.

Online Sources

Now let's take a look at the citation for the online version of the same book, available online through the publisher Project Gutenberg (gutenberg.org). Treat the online version of a print book exactly the same as a print book, but with an indication of where you found it online.

Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. Project Gutenberg, 2006. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/219/219-h/219-h.htm.

Journal Articles and Multiple Authors

NooriBerzenji, Latef S., and Marwan Abdi. "The Image of the Africans in Heart of Darkness and Things Fall Apart." Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business 5, no. 4 (2013): 710–726.

Much of this citation will look familiar to you now that you know the basics. Again, we start with the author information. If the source has multiple authors, the citation rules are a little different. The first author will be listed with their surname first (Conrad, Joseph) but subsequent authors will be listed with their first names first (Joseph Conrad). Use the word "and" (not an ampersand,&") before the last author. Here we have only two authors, but if we had five, the "and" would come before the fifth author's last name, after the comma following the fourth author's name.

The date of publication and title are formatted the same. Note that even though Chicago style says that the article title should not be italicized, the book titles within the article title are still italicized.

The new information here begins with citing the journal this article is from. Include the title of the journal in italicized title case (all major words capitalized, as in the title of a book):

Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business

Then include the journal volume:

5

If an issue number is provided in addition to the volume number, as it is here, add a comma after the volume number, the abbreviation "no.", and the issue number:

5, no. 4

Next, list the year of the article's publication in parentheses, followed by a colon:

(2013):

Finally, list the page numbers of the article, followed by a period [note that the dash between the first and second numbers is an en-dash (–), NOT a hyphen (-) or em-dash (—)]:

710–726.

Multiple Publications by the Same Author

If you are referencing multiple publications by (or group of authors) that were published in the same year, there is a special rule for denoting this. You should first order those articles alphabetically by source title in the bibliography. But then, replace the author's name in all entries except the first one with an em-dash (—).

Achenbach, Thomas. "Bibliography of Published Studies Using the ASEBA." Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment, 2012. http://www.aseba.org/asebabib.html.

—. "School-Age (Ages 6–18) Assessments." Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment, 2012. http://www.aseba.org/schoolage.html.

12.3.2: Chicago/Turabian (NB): How to Reference Different Types of Sources

In Chicago/Turabian NB style, there are different formats for citations in your bibliography depending on the type of source you are citing.

Learning Objective

List the ways to cite different source types in a Chicago/Turabian bibliography

Key Points

If you are using the Notes and Bibliography (NB) method of Chicago/Turabian style, you will need a bibliography at the end of your paper.

In your bibliography, you will have to create a citation for every source you used in your paper; these citations will be formatted differently depending on the type of source.

There are different citation styles for books, depending on how many authors they have.

There are different citation styles for articles, depending on where you found them.

Key Term

bibliography

A section of a written work containing citations, not quotations, of all the sources referenced in the work.

Now that you know the different components of a book citation in Chicago/Turabian Notes and Bibliography (NB) style and how the citation should be formatted, you will be able to understand the citation formats for other source types. Here are some example citations for the most common types of resources you will use.

Book by One Author

Doyle, Arthur. The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes. Mineola: Dover Publications, Inc., 2010.

Book by Multiple Authors

Two or More Authors

(Write out all author names.)

Dubner, Stephen, and Steven Levitt. Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything. New York: Harper Perennial, 2005.

Brown, Theodore, H. Eugene Lemay, Bruce Bursten, Catherine Murphy, Patrick Woodward, and Matthew Stoltzfus. Chemistry: The Central Science. London: Prentice Hall, 2015.

Book with Author and Editor

Lovecraft, Howard Phillips. Tales. Edited by Peter Straub. New York: Library of America, 2005.

Article in a Journal with Continuous Pagination

Rottweiler, Frank, and Jacques Beauchemin. "Detroit and Sarnia: Two foes on the brink of destruction." Canadian/American Studies Journal 54 (2012): 66–146.

Article in a Journal Paginated Separately

Rottweiler, Frank, and Jacques Beauchemin. "Detroit and Sarnia: Two foes on the brink of destruction." Canadian/American Studies Journal 54, no. 2 (2012): 66–146.

Article in an Internet-Only Journal

Marlowe, Philip, and Sarah Spade. "Detective Work and the Benefits of Colour Versus Black and White." Journal of Pointless Research 11, no. 2 (2001): 123–124. Accessed October 31, 2015. http://www.jpr.com/stable/detectiveworkcolour.htm.

Page on a Web Site

Pavlenko, Aneta. "Bilingual Minds, Bilingual Bodies." Psychology Today. Last modified October 7, 2015. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies.

Page on a Web Site, No Author Identified, No Date

"Bilingual Minds, Bilingual Bodies." Psychology Today. Accessed October 29, 2015. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies.

12.3.3: Chicago/Turabian (NB): Footnotes and Endnotes

In Chicago/Turabian Notes and Bibliography style, use footnotes or endnotes for citing sources in text.

Learning Objective

Arrange footnotes in Chicago/Turabian NB style

Key Points

A footnote is when you follow a quotation, a paraphrased idea, or a piece of information that otherwise needed to be cited with a superscript number.

An endnote is exactly like a footnote, except the note on what source was used is at the end of the paper rather than the bottom of the page.

There are two steps to creating a footnote. First, you need to place a number in the text to tell the reader what note to look for; then, you need to create the note itself.

Key Terms

endnote

A note at the end of a paper, corresponding to a number in a text, which gives the reader citation information.

footnote

A note at the bottom of the page, corresponding to a number in a text, which gives the reader citation information.

Footnotes and Endnotes

In your paper, when you quote directly from a source in their words, or when you paraphrase someone else’s idea, you need to tell the reader what that source is so the author gets credit for their words and ideas. One method for doing this is creating a footnote.

A footnote is when you follow a quotation, a paraphrased idea, or a piece of information that otherwise needed to be cited with a superscript number (like this.)1 Then, at the bottom of the page, you give a brief indication of where you retrieved that information. Fuller information about that source is then contained in the paper's bibliography. Think of the footnote as telling the reader where to go in your bibliography to find the source, and the bibliography entry as telling the reader where to go in the real world to find the source.

An endnote is exactly like a footnote, except that endnotes appear all together at the end of the paper, while each footnote appears on the bottom of the same page as its superscripted number.

Creating a Footnote

There are two steps to creating a footnote. First, you need to place a number in the text to tell the reader what note to look for; then, you need to create the note itself. As an example, let's say we are writing a paper about meerkat populations and we write the following sentences:

As of 2009, the meerkat population has increased by 20% in Eastern Botswana. "It's thrilling," says renowned biologist Elizabeth Khama, "The animals are truly making a comeback."

We need to create footnotes to cite our sources.

Numbering

The first step to creating a footnote is place a number next to the statement that needs to be sourced. To do this, place the number at the end of the sentence it refers to, after all punctuation.

As of 2009, the meerkat population has increased by 20% in Eastern Botswana.1 "It's thrilling," says renowned biologist Elizabeth Khama, "The animals are truly making a comeback."²

Your first footnote of the paper should be numbered 1, your second should be 2, and so on until the end of the paper. If you are writing an exceptionally long paper, such as a doctoral thesis, numbers should restart at the beginning of every chapter.

Creating the Notes

Next, you need to create the note that the number refers to. Every number needs a note. In the note, you will have the author's name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the page number:

Andrew Byrd, "The Resurgence of the Meerkat," Southern African Ecology 32, no. 2 (2009): 221.

You only need to create a note that contains all of this information once per paper. If you cite this source again later in the paper (say, in your sixth note), you would simply write the author, title, and page number, separated by commas:

6. Byrd, "The Resurgence of the Meerkat," 256. 

Using "Ibid."

However, if you cite the exact same source more than once in a row, without citing any other sources in between, there is a special shorthand you can use. Chicago NB style has very specific rules for what to do in this situation. If you cite the same source multiple times in a row, simply write "Ibid." in each note after the first—this means "this source is the same as the source in the previous note":

Andrew Byrd, "The Resurgence of the Meerkat," Southern African Ecology 32, no. 2 (2009): 221.

Ibid.

If you're citing a different page of the same source, add a comma and the new page number after "Ibid.":

Andrew Byrd, "The Resurgence of the Meerkat," Southern African Ecology 32, no. 2 (2009): 221.

Ibid., 225.

Once you cite a different source, your use of "Ibid." has to start over—you should not use it again until you have multiple notes in a row that cite the same source.

12.3.4: How to Reference Different Types of Sources in Footnotes

Different source types require different citation information when being cited in footnotes.

Learning Objective

List the ways to cite different source types in Chicago/Turabian footnotes

Key Points

Footnotes are like "mini-citations" at the bottom of the page, which direct your reader to a bibliography entry.

Different types of source require different citation information.

Key Term

Notes and Bibliography

A subset of the Chicago/Turabian citation style, which uses footnotes to cite sources in the text.

Footnotes are the preferred citation method for the Chicago/Turabian Notes and Bibliography citation style. When using footnotes, you create what is essentially a "mini-citation" at the bottom of the page. These footnotes guide the reader to the corresponding entry in your bibliography.

Different types of source require different citation information, but they always follow the form of: author, title, publication information, and then either page number or website URL (all separated by commas). And remember, this information will also be contained, in a slightly different form, in your bibliography. 

Book by a Single Author

1. Steven Pinker, How the Mind Works (New York: Norton, 1997), 223.

Book by Two to Four Authors

2. Stephen Dubner and Steven Levitt, Freakonomics (New York: William Morrow, 2005), 101.

Book by Five or More Authors

3. Theodore Brown et al., Chemistry: The Central Science (Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2005), 642.

Journal Article

4. Andrew Byrd, "The Resurgence of the Meerkat," Southern African Ecology 32, no. 1 (2009): 221.

Electronic Journal Article

5. Andrew Byrd, "The Meerkats Have All Gone Away," African Ecology Online 18, no. 2 (2006): 169, accessed October 31, 2015, http://www.afrecoonline.org/byrd1.htm. 

Website with Author and Publication Date

6. Cara Nelson, "The Top Three Movies of All Time," Best Movies, last modified June 26, 1993, http://www.bestmovies.com/nelsoncara1.htm.

Website with Unknown Author and Publication Date

7. "Some Cool Movies," Best Movies, accessed October 14, 2015, http://www.bestmovies.com/anonymous.htm.

Attributions

Chicago/Turabian (NB): The Bibliography Section

"Original figure by Eva Petzinger. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Eva Petzinger CC BY-SA 3.0.

Chicago/Turabian (NB): How to Reference Different Types of Sources

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Chicago/Turabian (NB): Footnotes and Endnotes

How to Reference Different Types of Sources in Footnotes

12.4: Chicago/Turabian: Citations and References – Author–Date (AD) System

12.4.1: Chicago/Turabian (Author–Date): The References Section

In Chicago Author–Date style, the sources you cite in your paper are listed at the end in the References section.

Learning Objective

Arrange the References section in a Chicago/Turabian Author–Date paper

Key Points

In Chicago/Turabian style, there are two ways of formatting your citations: the Author–Date system or the Notes and Bibliography system (NB). If you are using the Author–Date system, you will need a References section.

All the sources you cite throughout the text of your paper are listed together in the References section at the end of your paper.

The References section has its own special formatting rules, including hanging indentation.

In each citation style, formatting differs slightly based on source type; for example, you would format a citation differently if your source was an online book vs. a physical textbook.

There are different citation styles for types of sources, including books, online resources, journals, and many others.

In Chicago/Turabian papers using the Author–Date citation system, all the sources you cite throughout the text of your paper are listed together in full in the References section, which comes after the main text of your paper. (If you are using NB, this will be called the bibliography.)

Formatting the References Section

The top of the page, as the rest of your paper, should still include the page number in the right header. On the first line, the title of the page—“References”—should appear centered and not italicized or bolded. After the page title, leave two blank lines before your first citation. 

Unlike the rest of your paper, this page should not be double-spaced: leave a blank line between each citation, but the citations themselves should not be double-spaced. Your citations should be in alphabetical order by the first word in each citation (usually the author's last name).

Each reference should be formatted with what is called a hanging indent. This means the first line of each reference should be flush with the left margin (i.e., not indented), but the rest of that reference should be indented one inch from the left margin. Any word-processing program will let you format this automatically so you don’t have to do it by hand. (In Microsoft Word, for example, you simply highlight your citations, click on the small arrow right next to the word "Paragraph" on the home tab, and in the popup box choose "hanging indent" under the "Special" section. Click OK, and you're done.)

References page

This is a correctly formatted References page in Chicago/Turabian Author–Date style.

Constructing a Citation

The first step in building each individual citation is to determine the type of resource you are citing, since in each citation style formatting differs slightly based on source type. Some common types are a book, a chapter from a book, a journal article, an online book or article, an online video, a blog post, and personal communication such as an email or an interview you conducted. (You'll notice that "website" is not a category by itself. If the information you found is online, you want to determine if you're looking at an online book, an online article, or some other type of document.)

As an example, let's look in detail at the process of citing three particular sources in Chicago style: Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness (i.e., a book by one author), Project Gutenberg's online text of the same book (i.e., an online book), and an online journal article about the book.

Print Sources

Author Name

You always want to start with the author information. You should present the author information in the following order and format: the author's last name, a comma, the author's first name, the author's middle initial (if given), and then a period:

Conrad, Joseph.

Title of Source

Next, you should include the title of the source in title case. For a book, the title is italicized.

Heart of Darkness.

City of Publication

Next, you want to provide the location of the publisher's office. The location is generally a city, such as "London" or "New York, NY."

London:

Publisher Name

Next, provide the publisher's name, followed by a comma:

Everyman's Library,

Date of Publication

Now provide the year in which the source was published, followed by a period.

1993.

All together, then, the citation looks like this:

Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. London: Everyman's Library, 1993.

Online Sources

Now let's take a look at the citation for the online version of the same book, available online through the publisher Project Gutenberg (gutenberg.org). Treat the online version of a print book exactly the same as a print book, but with an indication of where you found it online.

Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. Project Gutenberg, 2006. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/219/219-h/219-h.htm.

Journal Articles and Multiple Authors

NooriBerzenji, Latef S., and Marwan Abdi. "The Image of the Africans in Heart of Darkness and Things Fall Apart." Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business 5, no. 4 (2013): 710–726.

Much of this citation will look familiar to you now that you know the basics. Again, we start with the author information. If the source has multiple authors, the citation rules are a little different. The first author will be listed with their surname first (Conrad, Joseph) but subsequent authors will be listed with their first names first (Joseph Conrad). Use the word "and" (not an ampersand, &) before the last author. Here we have only two authors, but if we had five, the "and" would come before the fifth author's last name, after the comma following the fourth author's name.

The date of publication and title are formatted the same. Note that even though APA style says that the article title should not be italicized, the book titles “Heart of Darkness” and “Things Fall Apart” within the article title are still italicized.

The new information here begins with citing the journal this article is from. Include the title of the journal in italicized title case (all major words capitalized, as in the title of a book):

Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business

Then include the journal volume:

5

If an issue number is provided in addition to the volume number, as it is here, add a comma after the volume number, the abbreviation "no.", and the issue number:

5, no. 4

Next, list the year of the article's publication in parentheses, followed by a colon:

(2013):

Finally, list the page numbers of the article, followed by a period [note that the dash between the first and second numbers is an en-dash (–), NOT a hyphen (-) or em-dash (—)]:

710–726.

Multiple Publications by the Same Author

If you are referencing multiple publications by (or group of authors) that were published in the same year, there is a special rule for denoting this. You should first order those articles alphabetically by source title in the References section. But then, replace the author's name in all entries except the first one with an em-dash (—).

Achenbach, Thomas. "Bibliography of Published Studies Using the ASEBA." Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment, 2012. http://www.aseba.org/asebabib.html.

—. "School-Age (Ages 6–18) Assessments." Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment, 2012. http://www.aseba.org/schoolage.html.

12.4.2: Chicago/Turabian (Author–Date): How to Reference Different Types of Sources

In Chicago/Turabian style, there are different formats for citing sources at the end of your paper depending on the type of source.

Learning Objective

List the ways to cite different source types in Chicago/Turabian Author–Date style

Key Points

If you are using the Author–Date method of Chicago/Turabian style, you will need a References section at the end of your paper.

In your References section, you will have to create a citation for every source you used in your paper; these citations will be formatted differently depending on the source type.

There are different citation styles for books, depending on how many authors they have.

There are different citation styles for articles, depending on where you found them.

There are ways to format sources that are not books or articles.

Key Term

Author–Date

A subset of the Chicago/Turabian citation style that uses in-text citations and a References page at the end.

Now that you know the different components of a book citation in Chicago/Turabian Author–Date style and how they should be formatted, you will be able to understand the citation formats for other source types. Here are some example citations for the most common types of resources you will use. These are how your citations will be formatted on your References page at the end of your Author–Date style paper.

Book by One Author

Doyle, Arthur. The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes. Mineola: Dover Publications, Inc., 2010.

Book by Multiple Authors

Two or More Authors

(Write out all author names.)

Dubner, Stephen, and Steven Levitt. Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything. New York: Harper Perennial, 2005.

Brown, Theodore, H. Eugene Lemay, Bruce Bursten, Catherine Murphy, Patrick Woodward, and Matthew Stoltzfus. Chemistry: The Central Science. London: Prentice Hall, 2015.

Book with Author and Editor

Lovecraft, Howard Phillips. Tales. Edited by Peter Straub. New York: Library of America, 2005.

Article in a Journal with Continuous Pagination

Rottweiler, Frank, and Jacques Beauchemin. "Detroit and Sarnia: Two Foes on the Brink of Destruction." Canadian/American Studies Journal 54 (2012): 66–146.

Article in a Journal Paginated Separately

Rottweiler, Frank, and Jacques Beauchemin. "Detroit and Sarnia: Two Foes on the Brink of Destruction." Canadian/American Studies Journal 54, no. 2 (2012): 66–146.

Article in an Internet-Only Journal

Marlowe, Philip, and Sarah Spade. "Detective Work and the Benefits of Colour Versus Black and White." Journal of Pointless Research 11, no. 2 (2001): 123–124. Accessed October 31, 2015. http://www.jpr.com/stable/detectiveworkcolour.htm.

Page on a Web Site

Pavlenko, Aneta. "Bilingual Minds, Bilingual Bodies." Psychology Today. Last modified October 7, 2015. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies.

Page on a Web Site, No Author Identified, No Date

"Bilingual Minds, Bilingual Bodies." Psychology Today. Accessed October 29, 2015. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies.

12.4.3: Chicago/Turabian (Author–Date): In-Text References and Parentheticals

In Chicago/Turabian Author–Date style, in-text citations follow strict formatting rules.

Learning Objective

Arrange in-text citations in Chicago/Turabian Author–Date style

Key Points

In-text citations are where you tell the reader, within the text of your paper, the author’s name and the date the source was published.

The correct formatting for an in-text citation varies depending on how many authors created the source being cited.

Formatting also varies depending on whether you cite the same source more than once, or whether you cite multiple works by the same author.

Key Term

parenthetical

A word or phrase within parentheses.

In your paper, when you quote directly from a source in the author's words, or when you paraphrase someone else’s idea, you need to tell the reader where the words and ideas comes from so the original author gets credit. When you do this within the text  the reader the author’s name and the date the source was published in the text of your paper, this is called an in-text citation.

The Chicago/Turabian citation style uses in-text citations only in its Author–Date method, which is generally used for social science papers and is explained below. If your professor asks you to cite sources with footnotes and bibliography rather than in-text citations, make sure you use the Notes and Bibliography (NB) method rather than the Author–Date method described here.

Source by a Single Author

To cite this type of reference in the text, you should use what is known as a parenthetical—citation information enclosed in parentheses—at the end of the relevant sentence. The parenthetical should include the author’s last name (with no first or middle initial) followed by the year the source was published. If you’re citing a direct quote, you also need to include the page number after a comma. For example:

Social representations theory posits that reified scientific knowledge that exists at the boundaries of a given society will be interpreted in meaningful and often simplified forms by the majority (Pauling 2005).

Social representations theory “proposes a new hypothesis…” (Pauling 2005, 113).

If you choose, you can integrate the author’s name into the sentence itself—this is known as a "signal phrase"—and provide just the year in parentheses:

Pauling (2005) posits that ...

Source by Two or Three Authors

Authors should be presented in the order in which they are listed on the published article. If you include the authors’ names in the parenthetical, use the word "and" between the two names. For example:

Social representations theory posits that reified scientific knowledge that exists at the boundaries of a given society will be interpreted in meaningful and often simplified forms by the majority (Pauling and Liu 2005).

You may still choose to use a signal phrase instead, but make sure you keep both authors in it:

Pauling and Liu (2005) posit that ...

Source by Four or More Authors

For an article with more than four authors, the first time you cite the article in the text of your paper, you should use only the first author’s name followed by “et al.” and the year of publication. (“Et al.” is short for “et alia,” which means “and other people” in Latin—much like “etc.” is short for “et cetera,” which means “and other things” in Latin.)

Social representations theory posits that reified scientific knowledge that exists at the boundaries of a given society will be interpreted in meaningful and often simplified forms by the majority (Pauling et al. 2005).

Using a signal phrase:

Pauling et al. (2005) posit ...

Citing Multiple Publications by Different Authors

If you need to cite multiple publications by different authors in the same sentence, you should list the multiple sources in alphabetical order by author and use a semicolon to separate them.

... majority (Alford 1995; Pauling 2004; Sirkis 2003).

If within this citation you also have multiple sources by the same author, after that author’s name, separate the multiple dates of publication with a comma, and order them chronologically (earliest to latest).

... majority (Alford 1995; Pauling 2004, 2005; Sirkis 2003).

Citing Multiple Publications by the Same Author

If you need to cite multiple publications by the same author within a sentence, you use a comma to separate the years of publication in chronological order (oldest to most recent).

... majority (Pauling 2004, 2005).

Using a signal phrase:

Pauling (2004, 2005) suggests that ...

Attributions

Chicago/Turabian (Author–Date): The References Section

"Original figure by Eva Petzinger. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." Eva Petzinger CC BY-SA 3.0.

Chicago/Turabian (Author–Date): How to Reference Different Types of Sources

Chicago/Turabian (Author–Date): In-Text References and Parentheticals